Pathway to Japanese Literature

I

In late spring, the Izu Peninsula still bore lingering cherry blossoms in scattered patches. Rapeseed flowers turned yellow across terraced fields nestled in mountain folds, signaling summer's approach. Day by day, the Sagami Sea grew bluer beneath its hazy mist, while Oshima—belching smoke too dense to blend with white clouds—lay vaguely at the horizon where sea met sky. Even Oshima’s volcanic silhouette appeared tranquil.

Yet through this idyllic scenery, the two young samurai making their way from Atami to Ito both had faces as harsh and haggard as those of sick dogs.

The two men wore their hair in large topknots.
One was a small-statured man measuring around five feet one or two inches.
His face bore faint pockmarks, but narrow gleaming eyes with upturned corners and a prominent nose bridge suggested fierce vitality. Yet the stubborn stubble growing across his gaunt, hollowed cheeks rendered the man's appearance desolate.
The other was a dark-complexioned man with thick eyebrows and an imposing build, but his haggardness differed not at all from the former.

The small-statured man wore an indigo-striped cotton yukata fastened with a Kogura sash, an unpatterned cotton bussaki haori, and mouse-patterned hakama trousers.
The well-built man wore a raincoat, so his clothing was not visible.

The small-statured man was Yoshida Torajirou, and the other was his comrade Kaneko Shigenosuke.

From March 6th to 13th, the two men took lodging in Hodogaya and exhausted themselves day and night attempting to approach the American ships anchored in Kanagawa.

At first, they tried to persuade boatmen to secretly board the Black Ships at night, but when the moment came, all the boatmen recoiled.
They attempted to board an official supply ship carrying firewood and water to approach the Black Ships, but since yoriki officials boarded every vessel, there was no opportunity to stow away.

On the 8th, when they heard that barbarians had come ashore at Yokohama Village, they rushed to seize the opportunity to deliver their pre-drafted appeal to the barbarians. But the foreigners had already returned to their ships, leaving them only to hear the clamorous rumors of villagers who had seen the Americans.

On the 9th, seizing upon Kaneko Shigenosuke’s ability to at least handle a boat, they tried to steal a fishing vessel and make for the Black Ships.
But after locating the boats’ positions by day and returning under night’s cover, they found not a single vessel remained—apparently taken by others—with only fierce breakers gnawing at the dark shore’s sand.
As the two men stood stunned in disappointment, several wild dogs gathered and began barking furiously.

“I never realized how hard stealing could be.”

The spirited Torajirou laughed as he said this, but when rain soon began falling and they returned to their Hodogaya lodgings around the hour of the ox, even their undergarments were soaked through.

On the 11th and 12th, the two men spent their days restlessly at their Hodogaya lodgings.

The 13th dawned with a clear sky, and Yokohama's offshore waters spread their springtime calm across the sea.

Just as they steeled themselves for tonight’s attempt, at the fourth hour of morning, the Black Ships’ decks suddenly stirred with activity. No sooner had they glimpsed anchors being raised than seven mountainous hulls began charging toward Edo.
Just as the coast guard officials grew alarmed, the vessels abruptly turned around off Haneda and began charging toward the open sea.

Rumor had it that one ship had returned directly to its home country, while the other six had made for Shimoda.

When Torajirou and Shigenosuke saw the Black Ships begin to move, they wept bitter tears. But upon learning they had headed to Shimoda, they immediately settled their lodgings in Hodogaya and set off in pursuit.

They stayed in Kamakura, Odawara, and Atami, and today, March 17th, they departed Atami.

When they had come to a coastal area about one ri from Ito, mandarin orange fields lined both sides of the road, some among them scattered with early-blooming flowers whose fragrant scent struck their nostrils.
The two men had just settled onto the ridge between mandarin orange fields and were about to open their woven lunchbox when—
A child who seemed to be playing in the mandarin orange field called out.

“Look!
“A big cargo ship is passing through!”
“Look! That’s even bigger than a cargo ship!”
“And there are two of them!”

Torajirou idly gazed out to sea.
When he looked, a full ri from shore across the waters, an uncanny monstrosity raced forward while spewing black smoke.
These were the Black Ships—those very vessels that haunted their waking dreams.
Today they unfurled triple-layered sails like seabird wings, yet still found this insufficient. Churning paddle wheels along both flanks, they plowed through the faintly turbulent ocean like some leviathan of legend.

“Look!”
“That force!”

Torajirou forgot even his enmity and admired them.

“Damn Western barbarians! They’re doing it! They’re doing it! Running through our imperial waters so brazenly!”

The impassioned Kaneko stamped his feet and shouted like a wingless creature cursing its powerlessness.

“What’s there to worry about? I’ll cross over to those Western barbarians soon and seize their techniques. I’ll drive out the Western barbarians using their own advanced tools!”

Torajirou shouted while stuffing his cheeks with the large rice balls made at the hot spring inn in Atami.

II

The two men arrived in Shimoda on the afternoon of the following 18th.
The two steamships they had seen yesterday on the way were anchored near the port entrance.
After securing lodging, they immediately met with the officials guarding the port and discreetly inquired about the Black Ships.

According to the officials’ account, these two ships were the advance party, and Admiral Perry had not yet arrived.
Moreover, not only was there no one who spoke Classical Chinese, but there weren’t even any interpreters who knew Dutch, making it difficult to handle even basic communications about loading firewood and water.
If there were no interpreters, stealthily boarding them to explain their circumstances and stow away would be absolutely impossible.
The two had no choice but to wait for the flagship carrying Perry to enter port.

It was the morning of the 20th.
Torajirou noticed that the swellings that had formed four or five days ago in the webbing between his fingers and on his wrists now contained pus.

On the morning he left Kamakura, he had noticed small wart-like bumps forming in clusters between his fingers, on his wrists, and around his elbows.
That night at an Odawara inn, each tiny bump delivered an itch that begged to be scratched, as if insects crawled beneath the skin.
He scratched them repeatedly.
The more he scratched, the more the itching intensified.

As three or four days passed, their number increased. Last night especially, he could hardly sleep due to the itching, but upon looking this morning, several had formed—each brimming with white pus. They had spread not only to the fingers and hands but also to the abdomen, around the waist, and even the thighs—though still few in number. It was unmistakably scabies.

When he thought back, he remembered the maid who had served them at the Hodogaya inn constantly scratching her fingers. He realized he must have caught it from that maid, but there was nothing to be done. He regretted having contracted such an illness, even if minor, before carrying out their great task. He wanted to receive whatever treatment he could before boarding the Black Ships. He had heard that the hot spring in Rendaiji Village, located about one ri from Shimoda, was effective against sores and scabies, so that very day, he moved to Rendaiji Village and took the waters.

On the afternoon of the following 21st, Admiral Perry’s flagship Powhatan entered port, leading three other ships.

From the 22nd to the 26th, Torajirou and Shigenosuke spent their days and nights devising plans to board the Black Ships.
On the morning of the 24th, the two men chased after Western barbarians walking in the suburbs of Shimoda and handed over the appeal to the Westerners they had prepared beforehand.
While saying they would go to Shimoda to stay at the hot spring inn in Rendaiji Village, the two men went out to the coast every night to observe the Black Ships.
And when they grew tired, they would camp out right there on the coast.

On the night of the 25th, they stole a boat moored to a river flowing through Shimoda Village and slipped out to sea, evading the watchful eyes of the guard ship at the river mouth.
But that night, the waves were rough, and with Shigenosuke’s inexperienced hands, the boat only spun in circles, unable to reach open waters no matter how long they struggled.
Exhausted as cotton, they had no choice but to turn back to Kakinoura Beach.
The two men slept soundly at Bentendo on the beach, unaware that dawn was breaking.

All the while, Torajirou’s scabies not only showed no signs of healing, but every last sore had festered into an eerie white pus.
He tried to dismiss it as a minor concern before their grand undertaking, but found himself utterly powerless against the all-consuming physical discomfort coursing through his body.

On the evening of the 27th, when they went out to Kakinoura Beach, they unexpectedly saw the Mississippi anchored offshore within two chō of the coast.
And then, not even half a chō away, the flagship Powhatan had dropped anchor.
Two or three days prior, having surveyed the harbor, the Americans appeared to have changed their anchorage positions.
Torajirou and Shigenosuke leaped for joy and rejoiced.
Moreover, right below Bentendo on the shore, two fishing boats had been left tied up.
It practically screamed at them to steal those very boats.

The two immediately returned to Rendaiji Village and prepared their evening meal.
They announced they would move to the Shimoda inn and prepared for the voyage.
Torajirou packed a small bundle with two sets of spare clothing, a compact edition of the *Classic of Filial Piety*, two volumes of *Dutch Grammar Translation Key (Front and Back)*, two volumes of *Tang Poetry Anthology with Commentary*, and several volumes of excerpts.
That was his luggage that would cross the thousand-ri sea to America.

At the Hour of the Boar (around 8 PM), when they went down to the coast below Bentendo, they found the waves unexpectedly calm beneath a starry night so dense it seemed to rain stars.
The six Black Ships, each displaying blue anchorage lights, lined up their dark forms like small islands.
Their hearts leaped.
However, when they searched for the small boat they had seen during the day, it had been washed up high on the sandy beach due to the ebb tide.
The two men desperately tried to push it.
However, it did not budge an inch.

They had no choice but to wait for the tide to come in again.

The two men entered Bentendo and fell asleep there.
They awoke sometime past the eighth hour.
By starlight, they realized the tide had risen fully beneath Bentendo.

The two men boarded the boat with jubilant resolve. However, when they took the oars and tried to row out, they realized the crucial rudder socket was missing. Startled, they tried switching to the other boat. But that boat was no different. They panicked. But in the heat of the moment, they removed their loincloths and tied the oars to both gunwales. But before they could row half a chō, the weak cotton was worn through by the intense friction between the oars and gunwales. They undid their Ogura sashes and had no choice but to retie the oars.

When they rowed out, the waves proved rougher than they had appeared from shore. At any moment, the boat was tossed by the waves and nearly capsized. Moreover, Torajirou had never rowed a boat before and was merely moving the oars with brute force, so their rhythms failed to align. The prow they had aimed at the nearest Mississippi ship spun round and round, alternately bringing into view the village lights of Shimoda and the woods of Kakinoura Beach before the bow. The boat did not move forward but spun around in the same spot.

When their arms were about to give out, they finally reached the side of the Mississippi ship.
They felt as though they had been revived.

“Americans!”
“Americans!”
Shigenosuke stepped onto the gunwale of the small boat and shouted at the top of his voice.

A suspicious shout arose on the ship, and no sooner had they sensed the commotion than a cut-glass lantern was lowered from the gunwale.
When they looked up, several barbarians from the ship were peering down at them.
Torajirou took out his writing kit and, by the lantern’s light, swiftly wrote on a pocket paper, “I wish to go to America; please request this of your great commander.” Clutching the paper scrap, he climbed the gangway.
However, unfortunately, there was no interpreter on that ship.
The elderly barbarian took the paper scrap from Torajirou, wrote in horizontal script on another sheet, then returned both scraps to him while pointing at the Powhatan ship and gesturing with hand motions that they should go to that vessel.
The two men immediately grasped the meaning, but advancing their small boat another chō offshore proved nearly impossible.
Torajirou pointed to the Batteira hanging from the ship and gestured for them to take him there using hand signals, but his plea went unheeded.

With exhausted bodies, the two men rowed to the Powhatan ship.
The farther out they rowed, the rougher the waves became.
Blisters had formed on the palms of both Torajirou and Shigenosuke.
But the boat refused to comply with their will.
What they had intended to bring alongside the inner side ended up being carried to the rough outer flank facing the open sea.
Moreover, caught between hull and gangway, tossed violently by fierce waves and with a dreadful noise, it was slammed against the hull time and again.

The sentry standing on deck must have heard the noise. A barbarian holding a long stick came rushing down the gangway while shouting angrily and tried to push away the boat carrying the two men with that stick. Thinking that being pushed away would be unbearable, Torajirou swiftly leaped onto the gangway. Shigenosuke tried to pass the rope to Torajirou, who had moved onto the ladder. But as the barbarian mercilessly pushed the boat away, Shigenosuke also hastily leaped onto the gangway. And they let go of the small boat’s mooring rope.

In the boat had been left their large and small swords and luggage.
But now that they had boarded the flagship, thinking things would somehow work out regardless, they did not look back at the small boat drifting away.
Of course, they had no time to look back.

The barbarian who had dragged the two men aboard probably thought they had come to tour the ship.
He showed them a compass and such.
They shook their heads and requested brush and paper.
They had left their writing kit and pocket paper in the small boat.

Before long, Williams, the Japanese-speaking interpreter, emerged, and the two men were led to a cabin.
The cut-glass lamp illuminated the room as brightly as midday.

In the room, besides the interpreter, two barbarians were present. One was Vice-Captain Gibbes, and the other was Surgeon Watson. He understood Dutch and was moreover well-versed in Eastern affairs.

Torajirou, holding a quill pen for the first time in his life, wrote his aspiration to go to America in Classical Chinese. Williams asked in rapid Japanese, “What country’s script is this?”

When Torajirou answered that it was Japanese script, Williams laughed and said, “But isn’t that Chinese characters?” Williams’s clear Japanese and knowledge about Japan delighted Torajirou and his companions. For the first time, they felt as though they had found a nurturing mother’s hand and began to voice the fiery hope burning within their hearts.

III

Before long, a meeting was convened in the admiral’s cabin of the Powhatan to discuss whether to accept the two Japanese youths’ request.

Admiral Perry and his staff officers, the captain and Vice-Captain Gibbes of the USS Powhatan, Surgeon Watson, and Interpreter Williams joined them.

It was past eleven o'clock, but owing to the extraordinary nature of the incident, everyone remained in a state of agitation. Above all others, Vice-Captain Gibbes—who had seen the two Japanese youths and been moved by their fervent sincerity—stood most agitated of all.

"So you're claiming it's prudent for us to spurn these youths' plea?"

As the council’s inclination began leaning toward rejection, Gibbes became increasingly frantic.

“We believe it unwise to provoke an incident with the Japanese government over such trivial matters.”

The Captain had insisted on rejection since earlier.
Gibbes, attempting to refute the Captain’s words, involuntarily rose from his seat.

“But even if some trouble were to arise with the Japanese government, I cannot comprehend how right and good it would be to grant those youths’ request.”
“I cannot express how deeply I was impressed by their intelligent and noble character after reading the translation of that letter which those young men reportedly handed to one of our officers.”
“Their fervent spirit struck my heart.”
“I did not know such splendid souls dwelled within the hearts of colored races.”
“Moreover, even when read in translation, one can understand how lucid and logically structured the original text is.”
“The clarity of their intellect was a marvel to me.”
“Just the thought of taking such brilliant young men to our country and exposing them to our culture makes my heart leap with joy.”
“I earnestly hope Your Excellency the Admiral will lend an ear to these young men’s request.”

Still barely past thirty, Gibbes shouted while lightly tapping the table, his young eyes gleaming.

“You are overexcited.”
“You must face reality more squarely.”
The Captain, nearing fifty with a bearded chin, spoke as if to soothe the young man.
“You must not interpret things by their surface alone.”
“Their reasoning is valid.”
“It is sufficient to gain our sympathy.”
“However, we must at least consider the possibility that they might be acting from base motives beyond their stated reasons.”
“Even through our brief negotiations with the Japanese, we have come to understand just how astute they are.”
“Moreover, we have come to understand that they are astute—so much so that one might even call them cunning.”
“I have harbored such suspicions ever since I saw that letter the other day.”
“I considered whether those two youths might be spies for the Japanese government.”
“I cannot believe a Japanese youth capable of writing such an exemplary text would not be highly regarded by the Japanese government.”
“They are undoubtedly officials of the Japanese government.”
“They have come disguised as shabby-looking youths to test us.”
“Japanese law prohibits Japanese people from traveling overseas.”
“We learned of that when we were anchored in Yokohama, from Hayashi Daigaku-no-kami.”
“Therefore, we must comply with this law and should not assist Japanese people in traveling overseas.”
“In my view, those two youths were sent as spies to test whether they remain loyal to the Japanese government.”
“If we permit their aspiration, a protest will immediately come from the Japanese government.”
“And there is no guarantee that our hard-won trade permission, obtained peacefully, will not be revoked, with us being deemed disloyal to the Japanese government.”

“No, you are too suspicious.”
Vice-Captain Gibbes stood unyielding.
“You say such things because you haven’t seen those youths.”
“Their eyes blaze like blood in their zeal to gain foreign knowledge.”
“Those are no spy’s eyes!”
“Their clothes were drenched, their fingers riddled with blisters.”
“That speaks of what sacrifices they endured to steal close to this ship.”
“Had they been Japanese government spies, they’d have approached us openly.”
“More—when boarding, they cast aside their swords, greater than life to them.”
“They would give their very lives to cross the seas…”

“But, Lieutenant Gibbes!”
Admiral Perry, who was usually reticent, opened his mouth gravely.
“In my desire to see those young men’s hopes fulfilled, I am no different from you.
However, I concluded a treaty between the United States of America and the nation of Japan in Yokohama.
As the one who did so, I cannot assist Japanese people seeking to defy Japanese law out of personal sentiment.
But I hope the day will soon come when Japanese youths thirsting for knowledge may freely arrive in our country.
And I cannot help but think that refusing protection to these two youths now may in fact hasten the arrival of such a future.”

Gibbes tilted his head slightly but immediately shouted again.

“Your Excellency, your words compel my agreement.”
“But consider the plight of these admirable youths who seek to travel to our nation through fair and upright curiosity.”
“Our rejecting them would mean driving them straight to the execution block.”
“If we send them ashore, they’ll be arrested by government officials at once.”
“And Japan’s severe laws will cleave their heads from their bodies.”
“Is it not a disgrace to the United States of America that we ourselves should herd to the execution block those whose curiosity we ignited—those who yearn for our homeland?”
“Our President did not send us to Japan merely to conclude formal treaties.”
“Did he not send us to spiritually awaken a comely people slumbering vainly on their isolated isle?”
“Yet now, to turn deaf ears to these beloved pioneers—these wise youths who first answered our summons, who might be called the very sensory organs of their nation—would this not betray the true mission we bear?”
“To conceal these two youths from Japanese officials’ eyes and send them to our homeland without offending their government would prove exceedingly simple if we but resolve to do it.”
“I fervently hope Your Excellency will heed this youth’s aspiration in the name of justice and humanity—the spirit that has guided our nation since its founding.”

Gibbes’s passionate speech stirred everyone present.
Stubborn and never having once compromised his own views, even the Captain remained silent for a time.

A look of profound emotion surfaced on the Admiral’s face.
There was no doubt his heart had stirred for the benefit of the two Japanese youths.
He lifted his face—still faintly ashen—and scanned the assembly.

“Are there any other opinions? Mr. Williams! Mr. Watson?”

At that moment, Watson suddenly recalled the countless contagious boils that had appeared on the fingers of one of the Japanese youths when he had been writing characters by lamplight earlier.

“As the ship’s doctor, I must state one thing.”
“One of those youths has unfortunately contracted Scabies impetiginosum.”
“That is a rare skin disease in our country.”
“Moreover, it poses a threat to shipboard hygiene.”
“As the officer responsible for shipboard hygiene, I will say this plainly.”
“Of course, I feel boundless sympathy for this youth, but—”

Even Gibbes’s eloquence, founded on justice and humanity, faltered before this practical problem.

The Admiral’s countenance shifted again.
He had obtained a good pretext to distract from the loneliness he felt in rejecting the youths’ entreaty.
After a considerably long deliberation, the Admiral said.

“Lieutenant Gibbes, in my sympathy for these youths, I am by no means inferior to you.”
“But I have something more important than questionable humanity to consider.”
“Moreover, regarding the importance of shipboard hygiene over those youths’ aspirations, I trust you gentlemen are in agreement.”
“Now then, Mr. Williams!”
“Please calm those youths and return them ashore.”
“Lieutenant Gibbes!”
“You, have a boat prepared to send those youths back.”

And that order was carried out immediately.

Dr. Watson, the ship’s surgeon, saw the two Japanese youths being lowered from the gangway.
The two, holding back tears, appealed to the Americans’ sense of humanity, but upon realizing it would not be accepted, after attempting a gentle slight resistance, submitted to their unfortunate fate.
Watson, having seen their modest yet undaunted demeanor, lay awake all night in his cabin bunk.

IV

On the third morning after the incident involving the unfortunate Japanese youths, Watson came ashore along with another officer.

It was a clear, sunny day.

After strolling along the coast, the two made their way around to the back of the town.
Because the children were following them noisily, they tried to shoo them away with hand gestures, but the children persistently followed them wherever they went.

They suddenly came before a building that seemed to be a barracks.
A man who appeared to be a Japanese soldier, holding something like a spear, was guarding the gate.

When they looked, many men and women had gathered around the wooden fence enclosing the barracks.
When Watson approached, they moved away as if fearing this foreigner.
Watson leaned against the wooden fence and peered into the barracks.
Not six feet from the wooden fence stood a cage fit for wild beasts.
Something seemed to be writhing inside the cage, so Watson stared intently.
Then, from between the bars, two pale human faces appeared and smiled pointedly at him.
Watson felt a terrible shudder course through his body.
He recognized those human faces.
They were unmistakably the unfortunate Japanese youths who had visited their ship the previous night.
The cage was far too narrow to hold two people.
The two men sat cramped, their knees pressed together.

The pitiful state of the two men darkened Watson’s heart.
Without thinking, he blurted out in English:

“Oh, you pitiful people! How were you captured?” he shouted loudly, but of course it couldn’t be understood.

But when they saw Watson shouting, the two youths—apparently realizing he had recognized them—seemed greatly heartened.
Then one—the youth afflicted with scabies—placed his palm perpendicular against his neck to indicate impending decapitation, yet erupted in thunderous laughter.
A self-possession surpassing even Cato of Rome overpowered Watson.
Watson felt his own hand clutching the wooden fence quiver faintly from awe.
He became resolved to do anything necessary to save these two Japanese youths' lives.

When he suddenly looked, the laughing youth—while pantomiming writing characters with his hand—indicated he wanted writing materials.
Watson searched his coat and found a pencil.
But there were no paper scraps anywhere on his person.
Then a Japanese boy fetched a thin wood shaving from somewhere and brought it over.
Yet as Watson pondered how to pass it into the cage six feet away, the elderly jailer took charge and handed it through.

The youth received the pencil, glanced at it curiously, then without any hesitation began writing fluently on the wood piece.
Fifteen minutes later, the wood piece—now filled to capacity with densely packed characters—was returned to Watson’s hands.

Watson nodded to the youths and, praying in his heart for the blessing of these unfortunate young men, returned to the ship.
And then, he showed the wood piece to Luo Sen, the Cantonese interpreter of the Chinese language.

Luo Sen translated as follows.

If a hero once fails in his ambitions, those deeds are regarded as acts of traitors and bandits.
We were captured and bound in full view of the crowd, then confined within a dark prison.
The village elders treated us with contempt and abused us severely.

The freedom to traverse the sixty-odd provinces could not satisfy our ambitions; therefore, we wished to journey across the five continents—this had been our long-cherished aspiration.
Our many years of planning have failed in a single morning.
And now we are imprisoned within a cramped cell, where all sustenance, rest, and sleep are difficult.
We cannot escape from this prison.
To weep would be to act like fools.
To laugh would be to act like villains.
Ah, we can only remain silent and cease.

Admiral Perry and those who had attended the previous night’s council all read this translated text.
And each of them could not help but feel a profound emotion.

“What heroic, yet philosophical composure!”

The Admiral murmured this with a deep sigh.

Suddenly, a sob startled those gathered.
It was Lieutenant Gibbes, the young Vice-Captain.

The Admiral approached Gibbes and lightly tapped his shoulder.

“That’s right. Your feelings were the most correct. You will go ashore immediately. And to save the lives of these unfortunate young men, I entrust to you the use of all the authority I possess.”

When Gibbes heard that, he rallied himself and rushed out.

Watson, unable to endure the pain in his heart, returned to his cabin.
But he couldn’t stay still there either.
He could not help but question whether the single statement he had insisted on as ship doctor had truly been justified.
In his heart, doubt had arisen: was scabies truly such a fearsome contagious disease that it necessitated sacrificing this noble and pitiable youth’s aspirations?
He wanted to calm his violently agitated conscience by learning what the eminent authorities in dermatology had said about it.
He walked dejectedly toward the ship’s library.