Pathway to Japanese Literature

Authored by Inoue Enryō, President of the Philosophy Institute

What is it that sits in the exalted hall of this wondrous cosmos and lights the mystic lamp of the mind?
No one inquires, yet they comprehend the entirety of a human’s existence.
If that is indeed the case, then that which illuminates all existence throughout one’s life is truly the light of the mind’s lamp.
And that which nourishes this light is the oil drawn from various fields of learning.
Therefore, as various fields of learning gradually advance and illuminate the mind’s lamp, and as that lamp grows ever brighter, the cosmos grows ever more beautiful.
I already possess the mind’s lamp—how then could I neglect the pursuit of various fields of learning?
This is precisely why I undertook research in Yokai Studies in recent years.

At present, the great political reformation stood accomplished; cultural prosperity rose daily, and the Meiji era's achievements poised to reach their magnificent completion.
The imperial grace extended its nourishing reach even to the distant grassroots; yet a humble servant such as myself still reclined beneath a thatched roof, permitted to while away tranquil years.
Ah, even this single shaft of sunlight piercing through my window—was it not also a lingering drop from the sovereign’s benevolence?
How could I idly while away my days in vain?
Thus I came to compile and present the results of my years of research in Yokai Studies and report them to the world.
For this aim was none other than to raise a single mind’s lamp together with my compatriots to read the living text of heaven and earth, while drawing forth my own heartfelt sincerity to aid in our nation’s glorious ascent.
Now our country had steamships upon the seas and railways across the land.
Telegraphs and electric lights had spread nationwide; compared to the state of affairs several decades past, one felt as though an entirely different world had opened up.
The benefits gained by the people through these developments could truly be said to be innumerable.
The only regret remained that the application of various fields of learning stayed incomplete, leaving many among the ignorant masses still wandering lost in delusion and groaning amidst suffering.
This was precisely why I had previously asserted that today’s civilization constituted material and mechanical progress rather than spiritual development in the intangible realm.
Were railways of various fields of learning laid across the hearts of these ignorant masses and knowledge’s electric lights lit within them, then indeed might we declare the Meiji era’s great enterprise to have achieved complete success.
Now, the means to achieve this purpose lay precisely in the application of various fields of learning—particularly through dedicated research in Yokai Studies. Should the people indeed come to open a new realm of luminous understanding within their hearts through this endeavor, to claim its merit yielded not one whit to the establishment of railways and telegraphs in the external world—could this be called an exaggeration?
The necessity of researching Yokai Studies and explaining it had already been established as such.
Society would surely come to know that my years of diligent efforts were by no means in vain.

What is Yokai Studies?
To provide that interpretation constitutes precisely one part of Yokai Studies.
Now, to explain this in a single phrase: it is the discipline that investigates the principles behind yokai and elucidates their phenomena.
Then, what is a yokai?
Its meaning remains elusive and difficult to fix.
Some say: “Ghosts are yokai.”
Others declare: “Tengu are yokai.”
Others assert: “When foxes and raccoon dogs bewilder people—that is yokai.”
Still others proclaim: “When spirits possess people—that is yokai.” Whether citing ghost lights, dragon lanterns, strange plants, or anomalous trees as yokai—all such instances merely describe yokai phenomena rather than interpreting yokai itself.
And so, when it comes to interpreting yokai themselves, indeed, no one possesses a definitive established theory.
Some interpret this as “mystery,” while others explain it as “abnormality” or “anomaly”—but all these amount to nothing more than declaring “yokai are yokai.”
If one takes this as the definition of yokai, then one must necessarily explain what constitutes a “mystery” and what defines an “abnormality.”
If not, one must determine what constitutes a mystery and what defines a normal state.
Thus, according to common understanding, yokai refers to that which cannot be known through ordinary knowledge nor fathomed through conventional reasoning.
Then let us raise another question: what constitutes ordinary knowledge and conventional reasoning?
Even if we grant that knowledge and reasoning may differ in their levels of sophistication, by what standard should this boundary be established?
When one interrogates matters in this manner, in the end, there remains no choice but to conclude by stating that it cannot be known nor explained.
Indeed, concerning all matters within the realm of human knowledge, one must necessarily record that they are surrounded on all sides by boundaries of the unknowable.
Then, are yokai entirely unknowable?
If one were to definitively conclude that this lies beyond human comprehension, one could not help but recognize the folly of pursuing its study.

Then, can yokai truly be understood?
If one were to deem them knowable, numerous doubts would inevitably arise.
To investigate yokai's essential nature and furnish explanations thereof constitutes nothing less than the fundamental aim of Yokai Studies.
As for arriving at their precise definition, this shall be thoroughly expounded when presenting Yokai Studies' principal treatise.

Most people in the world deem as yokai those phenomena that cannot be comprehended when reflected in the mirror of their own minds. Therefore, what Person A deems a yokai, Person B denies as such; what Person B considers a yokai, Person C rejects as well. The ignorant people could not comprehend the principles behind anything they observed. Therefore, every phenomenon and object became a yokai. Scholars were well acquainted with that which lay beyond the understanding of the ignorant masses. Therefore, they pointed to such yokai and declared them not to be yokai at all. However, were scholars to declare that yokai did not exist at all, this would constitute their deluded view. For instance, when ignorant people asserted the existence of yokai, it was akin to someone aboard a boat who remained unaware of their own motion yet perceived the opposite shore as moving and believed this motion to be real. Therefore, scholars heartily mocked that foolishness. Scholars’ denial of yokai’s existence was akin to inhabitants of Earth who observed the sun’s apparent motion across the sky and believed it was the sun that moved rather than their own planet. Had one fully opened a brilliant philosophical eye and thoroughly illuminated this matter, they too would have found themselves compelled to laugh at such folly. For scholars’ denial of yokai was itself a type of yokai. When one gazed up at the heavens and observed astronomy, the sun, moon, and stars—orderly arrayed in their courses—not a single one failed to be a yokai. When one gazed down to examine geography, the mountains, rivers, plants, and trees—those densely flourishing in forest-like profusion—all were yokai. Whether it was the wind rustling through leaves above, water gurgling as it flowed between stones, or people rejoicing at meeting and grieving at parting—there was none that was not the strangest of strange phenomena, the most supernatural of supernatural occurrences. Now, a cup of water was formed from a single dewdrop; a dewdrop was formed from several molecules; molecules were formed from smaller molecules; smaller molecules were formed from minute molecules; and minute molecules were none other than chemical elements. Were one to ask what these so-called elements were formed from, indeed, there would have been none who could answer. This was none other than a minor monster. The human body’s vastness, when compared to a nation’s territory, did not even amount to a single grain in the boundless sea. The vastness of a nation’s territory, when compared to the entire Earth, did not amount to even a single hair from nine oxen.

The vastness of Earth when compared to the Solar System revealed its minuteness to lie beyond metaphor's reach.
The Solar System's immensity measured against boundless space proved minuscule beyond all proportion.
And when confronting space's true nature—utterly beyond human comprehension—there too loomed a titanic monstrosity.
Thus whether contracting to microscopic scales or expanding to cosmic magnitudes, Yokai erected both riverbanks of understanding—barring humanity from crossing beyond.
This stood as genuine True Supernatural.
Between these shores spanned a single bridge forged from human knowledge.
Scholars perched upon this structure—observing ignorant masses below ensnared among unyielding stones, lost and pathless—could not but mock their constricted vision when they proclaimed yokai nonexistent.
Therefore the masses' yokai constituted not True Supernatural but False Supernatural.
To purge False Supernatural and unveil True Supernatural—this indeed formed Yokai Studies' essential purpose.

Generally speaking, while we cannot know how many subdivisions exist when classifying yokai in detail, if we broadly categorize them, they may be classified into two major categories: Physical Phenomena and Psychological Phenomena.
Physical Phenomena are termed Physical Yokai, and Psychological Phenomena are termed Psychological Yokai.
Moreover, there exists a type of yokai arising from the mutual relationship between these two.
For example, phenomena such as Ghost Lights and Shiranui are simple Physical Yokai while strange dreams and spiritual visions are simple Psychological Yokai.
And when we come to phenomena such as Kokkuri hypnotism magic and illusionism these may be termed interrelated physical-psychological yokai.

When ordinary people enumerate types of yokai, they limit themselves to sensory phenomena that meet the eyes and ears. Yet what I call yokai extends beyond the senses to encompass various techniques for discerning principles and altering fortunes—such as divination, physiognomy, Nine Stars Divination, and directional practices—alongside numerous theories concerning the posthumous realm, including spirits, souls, heaven, and hell—all of which belong to a category of yokai.

Among all things in this world that people fear most and that torment their hearts, there is nothing more profound than the circumstances of life and death.

If there exists that which opens the labyrinthine gate of life and death to illuminate the path to the afterlife, no greater benefit could be granted to humanity than this.

Thus, my so-called Yokai Studies is indeed the key that unlocks this gate and the lighthouse that illuminates this path.

Moreover, is there anyone who does not pray for their own happiness and their family’s safety?

And calamities assail individuals while disasters invade households.

Although they wish to prevent these, they cannot foresee them themselves.

There, they exhaust all means in attempting to discover a weathervane of fortune that might predetermine auspicious and inauspicious outcomes, until finally various techniques such as divination and physiognomy came to be practiced in society.

If they were to recognize that this weathervane of fortune proves unreliable and consequently replace it by applying a sort of lightning rod that prevents one from suffering harm even when encountering calamities, how would benefiting society differ from illuminating the labyrinthine gate of life and death?

And this too is a result of applying Yokai Studies.

Therefore, how could we possibly treat the pursuit of this discipline with negligence?

Yokai Studies used philosophical principles as warp and weft while opening pathways of application through all directions - north and south, east and west, above and below.
Were one to kindle philosophical fire within each mind-lamp of humanity,the myriad yokai varieties accumulated through ages would instantly vanish like dispersing mist and cloud-revealing instead a singular great yokai radiating numinous light with spiritual clarity.
This constitutes what I term true Yokai.
Once this yokai unleashed its radiance,the brightest mind-lamps could not withstand its power,losing their own illumination instantaneously.
Just as morning sun ascending extinguishes starlight.
We provisionally name this great mystery Philosophical Phenomena.
Herein lies comprehension of why my Yokai Studies proclaims its purpose:sweeping aside False Supernatural to unveil True Supernatural.

What is meant by Philosophical Phenomena? It refers to the true essence—self-generating and self-sustaining, independent and autonomous, vibrant and animate—that drifts ethereally and hangs massively between the bounds of the boundless and the shores of the shoreless, from the beginning without beginning to the end without end. Though no one knows its name, all recognize its existence. Though they know of its existence, they do not know the reason for naming it. As for its essence—it appears knowable yet cannot be known; appears unknowable yet must be known. This is indeed the great monster. Whether one calls this divine mystery, spiritual wonder, subtle profundity, sublime marvel, or arcane enigma—all these names merely describe fragments of the luminous essence radiating from its being. One might label this as Laozi's "Nameless," Confucius' "Heaven," the I Ching's "Taiji," Shakyamuni's "Tathata," "Dharma-nature," or "Buddha," Christendom's "Heavenly Emperor," or our nation's "kami"—yet all these are but provisional names assigned to one aspect of its essence. Though I call this 'Ideal,' it too remains but a partial description. Who could possibly use the name of finitude to express the essence of infinity? Rather than do so, it is better not to name this as a great monster. If we do not do this, we must strive to use the names of finitude as a ladder to perceive and comprehend the infinity contained within their reverse side.

When we looked up to observe and looked down to contemplate, we naturally evoked a kind of lofty and profound impression.
This was none other than when one came into contact with the spectacle of the ideal great monster.
When one finally delved deeply into this with their mind, they gradually unveiled its true nature until—in the boundless expanse of mental heavens—they gazed upon a solitary full moon of Ideal and beheld the entire great world standing solemnly amidst divine radiance.
It was at this moment that one came to fully comprehend that this world was indeed an ideal world.
Once one had come to know this world as the Ideal World and observed all creation anew—even the chirping of birds and beauty of blooming flowers—they comprehended these as true manifestations of Ideal’s genuine reality.
This was what we called philosophical enlightenment.
Here one must recognize that within Ideal lies a distinction between noumenon and phenomenon.
All material and mental existences are phenomena.
In their noumenal essence they were inseparable as shadow from form—not parting even for an instant—and thus these two were one in being.
Therefore when one investigated all creation and attained its marrow they immediately contacted Ideal’s true light; likewise when one comprehended Ideal’s essence and illuminated their surroundings they perceived mystical dewdrops glistening upon every leaf.
In midspring’s floral fragrances and birdsong—in autumn’s crisp winds and bright moon—in summer’s lush foliage—in winter’s glistening snows—not one lacked beauty and wonder.
Was this not precisely Ideal’s true form crystallized naturally within external reality?
Indeed Ideal’s essence was an infinite absolute emperor governing cosmic realms who administered our world through two ministers—Matter and Mind—compelling us into their service.
Thus knowing our bodies were formed from these twin roots when we raised mind-lamps to illuminate heaven-earth we realized these “ministers” were but phenomena of Ideal’s sovereignty.
Ah though born into this wondrous world multitudes died without ever beholding its truth.
How pitiable indeed!
Had someone ignited mind-lamps within darkened chambers great cosmos would manifest radiance instantly—crumbling huts transforming into jade towers—this suffering world becoming fairyland paradise where Ideal’s great monster first deemed most monstrous revealed divine-spiritual-sublime-profound wonders becoming through-and-through ultimate marvel.
To demonstrate this principle was Yokai Studies’ true purpose—what earlier meant “sweeping False Supernatural aside to reveal True Supernatural.”

If one thus sweeps away False Supernatural, one enables people to stand transcendent beyond the gate of delusion and suffering; and if one thus opens True Supernatural, one enables people to dwell serenely in a separate world of joy.
Therefore, the outcome of Yokai Studies lies in bestowing the light of true knowledge and true joy upon the dark realm within the mind.
This is why my achievement does not pale in comparison to the construction of railways and telegraphs.

People, on one hand, regard Yokai as clear facts beyond doubt; on the other hand, they reject them as baseless superstitions. Moreover, those who believe in them merely consider them true without proving why they must be so—this is what we call dogmatism. Conversely, those who reject them merely dismiss them as falsehoods without demonstrating why this must be so—this too is dogmatism. Otherwise, they cannot escape the pitfalls of skepticism. All these are explanations that fail to achieve adequacy and can never reach consensus. This is because a chasm lies between these two types of theorists, keeping them apart. For instance, Proponent A claims to have actually witnessed Yokai, while Proponent B asserts these are merely nervous phenomena. Yet Proponent A does not prove why what they witnessed must necessarily be truth, nor does Proponent B explain what nervous phenomena themselves actually are. For this reason, despite cultural progress advancing, traditional Yokai remain unchanged in form and instead seek to expand their influence. Therein, I have come bearing philosophy's sharp tool to deliver a decisive verdict upon this matter.

Although my explanations of Yokai are grounded in philosophical principles, when it comes to Physical Phenomena among them, their elucidation must rely on science.
Furthermore, Yokai phenomena arising from the human body must rely on medical interpretation.
Therefore, I shall take philosophy as the foundation, and science and medicine as pillars and walls, thereby establishing a distinct school of Yokai Studies.

The categories of Yokai, according to the broad classification previously established, were divided into three types: Physical Phenomena, Psychological Phenomena, and Philosophical Phenomena—classifying Physical and Psychological Phenomena as False Supernatural while designating Philosophical Phenomena alone as True Supernatural.
Though Lectures on Yokai Studies should naturally have followed this classification sequence, as I intended to provide explanations through the lens of various academic disciplines and deliver lectures within Philosophy Institute Lecture Records, I therefore established the following departments.

Lectures on Yokai Studies

Category I: General Theory

Category II: Science Department

Category III: Medical Department

Category IV: Pure Philosophy Department

Category V: Psychology Department

Category VI: Religious Studies Department

Category VII: Education Department

Category VIII: Miscellaneous Department

This indeed constituted the lecture's sequence.
If one were to enumerate the categories within each department, they would be as follows.

General Theory: Definition, Types, Causes, Explanations, etc.

Science Department: Celestial anomalies, geographical anomalies, strange plants, unusual trees, mysterious birds, monstrous beasts, anomalous humans, ghost lights, dragon lanterns, mirages, and phenomena related to the Dragon Palace.

Medical Department: Bodily anomalies, epilepsy, hysteria, various manias, immortal arts, miraculous medicines, food incompatibilities, magical cures, and related phenomena.

Pure Philosophy Department: Premonitions, prophecies, coincidences, Yin-Yang principles, Five Elements theory, weather prediction methods, Yarrow Stalk Divination, Sacred Lot Drawing, Astrological Mansions, Celestial Origin calculations, Nine Stars Divination, Stem-Branch Technique, physiognomy, architectural geomancy, directional divination, ink-color divination, Demon Gate taboos, inauspicious years, auspicious/inauspicious cycles, omens and related phenomena.

Psychology Department: Hallucinations, delusions, dreams, strange dreams, fox possession, dog deities, tengu, animal electricity, spirit board, hypnotism, mind-reading techniques, spirit channeling rituals, shamans and mediums.

Religious Studies Department: Ghosts, Living Spirits, Death Spirits, Human Souls, Deities and Demons, Devils, Previous Lives, Afterlife, Six Realms, Reincarnation, Heaven, Hell, Curses, Misfortune Purification, Prayers, Protective Talismans, Spells and Curses, Ritual Practices, Miraculous Efficacy, Retribution, Divine Oracles, Spiritual Communion, and related phenomena.

Education Department: Genetics, prenatal education, idiocy, child prodigies, mnemonics, and related phenomena.

Miscellaneous Department: Haunted sites, uncanny events, monstrous beings, fire-walking, sorcery, illusionism, and related phenomena.

This remains merely a general classification. Although some phenomena relate to two or even three departments, I assign them to a single department at my discretion for lecturing convenience. For instance, phenomena such as Ghosts—though related to psychology—are classified under the Religious Studies Department, while those such as Shamans—though related to religious studies—are classified under the Psychology Department. Furthermore, practices such as divination and prediction methods—while indirectly related to various departments—lacking direct affiliation with any specific one led me to establish a Pure Philosophy Department to encompass them. Additionally, phenomena such as haunted sites, uncanny events, and monstrous beings—as mixtures of various departments—compelled me to create a Miscellaneous Department for their inclusion. This was done purely for practical convenience. Moreover, while this classification may appear irregular or disorganized when viewed through academic standards, having determined categories based on facts collected over the years, I ultimately had no choice but to structure departments in this manner. If one were to enumerate more detailed subcategories, they would be as listed below.

Category I: General Theory

Part I: Definition; Part II: Discipline; Part III: Relation; Part IV: Type; Part V: History; Part VI: Cause; Part VII: Explanation

Category II: Science Department

Type 1 (Celestial Anomalies Section): Celestial anomalies; sun and moon; eclipses; unusual stars; meteors; solar halos; rainbows; winds and rains; frost and snow; thunder and lightning; heavenly drums; celestial fires; mirages; tornadoes

Type 2 (Earthly Phenomena Section): Earthly phenomena; earthquakes; ground collapses; landslides; spontaneous collapses; subterranean detonations; self-sounding phenomena; tides; tsunamis; Mount Sumeru; Dragon Palace; Immortal Realm

Type 3 (Flora Section): Strange plants; unusual grains; unusual trees

Type 4 (Fauna Section): Mysterious birds; monstrous beasts; fish and insects; firebirds; thunder beasts; aged foxes; nine-tailed foxes; white foxes; ancient raccoon dogs; belly drums; monstrous otters; cat demons; tengu

Type 5 (Anomalous Humans Section): Anomalous humans; mountain men; mountain women; mountain witches; snow women; immortals; celestial beings

Type 6 (Mysterious Fires Section): Mysterious fires; ghost lights; dragon fires; fox fires; minomushi; fire carts; pillars of fire; dragon lanterns; sacred lanterns; celestial lanterns

Type 7 (Unusual Objects Section): Unusual Objects; Fossils; Thunderstones; Celestially Fallen Objects; Laurel Trees; Buddhist Relics

Type 8 (Unusual Events Section): Transformations; Kamaitachi; Kappa; Pot Clanging; Seven Mysteries

Category III: Medical Department

Type 1 (Human Body Section): Abnormal deformations and transformations of the human body; postmortem bleeding; cadaveric rigidity; mummies

Type 2 (Diseases Section): Epidemics; smallpox; malaria; apoplexy; syncope; epilepsy; manias (manic disorder, depressive disorder, delusional disorder, intermittent mania, hysterical mania, etc.); hair-cutting disease; tsutsugamushi

Type 3 (Therapies Section): Immortal arts; elixirs of immortality; alchemy; ritual waters; various poisons; miraculous medicines; secret formulas; food incompatibilities; magical cures; faith healing

Category IV: Pure Philosophy Department

Type 1 (Coincidences Section): Premonitions; foreknowledge; prophecies; intuitive discernment; fortuitous correspondences; accidental hits

Type 2 (Yin-Yang Section): River Chart; Luo Writing; Yin-Yang Principles; Eight Trigrams; Five Elements; Mutual Generation and Restraint; Ten Celestial Stems; Twelve Earthly Branches; Twenty-Eight Lunar Mansions

Type 3 (Divination Studies Section): Weather prediction methods; fortune analysis; astrology; auspicious omens; crow augury; dog augury

Type 4 (Divination Methods Section): Yarrow Stalk Divination, Turtle Shell Divination, Coin Divination, Song Divination, Great Divination, Oral Divination, Crossroads Divination, Omen Interpretation, Dream Divination, Sacred Lot Drawing, Oracle Lots

Type 5 (Divination Arts Section): Nine Stars Divination, Celestial Origin calculations, Astrological Mansions, Stem-Branch Technique, directional divination, Fatal Destructive Forces, Eight Gates Divination

Type 6 (Physiognomy Section): Physiognomy; phrenology; palmistry; voice analysis; ink-color divination; character analysis; architectural geomancy; geomancy; feng shui

Type 7 (Calendrical Divination Section): Toshitoku, Konjin, Eight General Deities, Demon Gate, Getsurei (Monthly Positions), Dokō (Earth Lord), Ten'ichijō (Celestial Unity), Seven Luminaries, Nine Luminaries, Six Day Signs, Twelve Fortunes

Type 8 (Auspicious/Inauspicious Section): Inauspicious years; inauspicious days; auspicious days; inauspicious days; wish-fulfillment days; non-fulfillment days; auspicious/inauspicious cycles; knowing one's death date; omens; ritual wand-bearing

Category V: Psychology Department

Type 1 (Mental Phenomena Section): Hallucinations; delusions; misperceptions; fallacies; mental operations

Type 2 (Dreams Section): Dreams; strange dreams; dream revelations; dream coincidences; sleepwalking; nightmares

Type 3 (Possession Section): Fox possession; human-fox hybrids; Shikigami; fox control; Izuna spirits; Osaki spirits; dog deities; tanuki possession; snake handling; human possession; divine possession; demon possession; tengu possession

Type 4 (Mental Techniques Section): Animal electricity; Kokkuri; rod attraction; self-sleep techniques; hypnotism; mind-reading techniques; spirit channeling rituals; shamans; shrine maidens

Category VI: Religious Studies Department

Type 1 (Ghosts Section): Ghosts, Living Spirits, Death Spirits, Human Souls, Souls and Spirits, Wandering Spirits

Type 2 (Deities and Spirits Section): Deities and spirits; mountain and water demons; nature specters; aberrant gods; devils; Seven Lucky Gods; Poverty Deity

Type 3 (Netherworld Section): Previous lives; postmortem states; Six Realms; reincarnation; heavenly realms; hell realms

Type 4 (Defilement Section): Curses; Afflictions; Torments; Taboos; Defilement; Misfortune Purges; Exorcisms; Ritual Expulsions; Purification Rites

Type 5 (Ritual Supplications Section): Rituals; spirit pacification; heterodox worship; prayers; votive amulets; talismans; empowerment rites; incantations; prohibitory magic; spellcasting; curses; esoteric practices

Type 6 (Miraculous Powers Section): spiritual efficacy; divine response; infernal retribution; karmic causation; karmic retribution; oracular revelations; divine messages; supernatural powers; spiritual communion; divine revelations

Category VII: Education Department

Type 1 (Knowledge and Virtue Section): Genetics; idiocy; child prodigies; great men; blindness and muteness; thieving hearts; suicide; evildoers

Type 2 (Cultivation Section): Prenatal education; child-rearing methods; rote memorization techniques; mnemonics

Category VIII: Miscellaneous Department

Type 1 (Mysterious Events Section): Haunted dwellings; pillow-flipping; mysterious occurrences

Type 2 (Monsters Section): Monsters; Boat Ghosts; Passing Demons; Stretch-Necked Specters

Type 3 (Sorcery Section): Firewalking; Immobilization Spells; Magic; Illusion Techniques; String Manipulation

The several types of yokai phenomena listed above were divided into eight categories corresponding to academic departments; these were to be published in the *Philosophy Institute Lecture Records*, with the seventh academic year's lectures being designated as the *Yokai Studies Lecture Records*.
The lecture records published by this institute customarily issued their inaugural volume in the first ten days of November each year and reached completion in the last ten days of October of the following year.
Therefore, beginning with the lecture records published in the first ten days of November this year, we featured *Yokai Studies Lectures* and designated these as the Seventh Academic Year Lecture Records to distinguish them from lecture records of other academic years.
Moreover, as these lectures provided explanations grounded in the principles of science and philosophy, they would not only impart an understanding of yokai principles to those who read them through but also facilitate the study of essential aspects across various academic disciplines, thereby ensuring they remained fully worthy of the title *Philosophy Institute Lecture Records*.

My undertaking of Yokai Studies research dates back ten years prior to the present moment, having commenced specifically in the summer of Meiji 17 (1884). Subsequently, after articulating the academic necessity for this research, I formally proposed the establishment of a dedicated research institute within the University of Tokyo. Concurrently with this initiative, I gathered like-minded colleagues to found the Mysteries Research Society within the university's precincts. Those who endorsed my views and joined this society at that time were the following gentlemen:

Miyake Yujirō Tanakadate Aikitsu Mitsukuri Genpachi Yoshitake Einoshin Tsuboi Jirō Tsuboi Shōgorō Sawai Ren Fukuya Umetarō Tanahashi Ichirō Satō Yūtarō Tsubouchi Yūzō

And thus, the first meeting was held on January 24, Meiji 19 (1886), in the university lecture hall.
Although membership gradually increased thereafter, I remained long confined to a sickbed and became unable to manage its affairs, whereupon the society was ultimately adjourned.
Moreover, at that time I advertised its purpose to volunteers nationwide and requested reports of factual accounts.
The number of reports obtained up to that day reached as many as four hundred and sixty-two cases.

During this period, I conducted field research on dozens of cases—both major and minor—including those involving Kokkuri, hypnotism, magic, white fox phenomena, and others. Furthermore, since Meiji 23 [1890], I directly observed and documented numerous cases while touring nationwide. Over several years, the documents from past and present eras concerning yokai-related matters that I examined numbered as many as five hundred volumes. I shall now list those bibliographic references as follows.

Yokai Studies Research References and Cited Works

This bibliography was presented here exactly as recorded in my notebook. Though the ordering was haphazard, I humbly asked for your indulgence regarding this matter. [The original text arranges entries in iroha order using historical kana orthography, but this has been converted to gojūon order.]

A-Section

*Ainōshō*; *Azuma Kagami* [*Azuma Kagami*]; *Atago-gū no Hitsugi*; *Atami-shi*; "Aneroid" Detailed Explanation and Usage of Barometers; *Amitābha Sūtra*; *Ansai Zuihitsu*; *Ansei Zassho Banreki Taisei*

I-Section

Unbasō; Ikaho Onsen Yūranki; Itsukushima Miyaji no Shiori; Idō Ben'i; Inari Jinja Kō; Inō Mononoke Roku; Insairon; Inpan Hiketsushū; Onmyō Gogyo Kisho

U-Section

Uji Shūi [Tales]; Uso Kanwa; Karasubo Monogatari [Utsuho Monogatari]; Unpei Zasshi

E-Section

Eitai Ōzassho Sanzesō; Eitai Chōhō [Ki]; Ekigaku Keimō; Ekigaku Tsūkai; I Ching; Ekko Zuihitsu; Edo Meisho Zue; Huainanzi; Enkan Ruikan; Engishiki

O-Section

Lunheng by Wang Chong; Ōjōyōshū; Chronicle of Imperial Reigns; Illustrated Physiognomy of Europe and America; Ōiso Scenic Sites Gazetteer; Great Miscellany; Great Miscellany: Three Worlds Physiognomy; Sawdust Tales; Odawara Chronicle; Woven Tang Robes; Warm Knowledge Collectanea

Ka-Section

*Kaidan Otogi Zakura*; *Kaidan Otogi Dōji*; *Kaidan Jitsuroku*; *Kaidan Shokoku Monogatari*; *Kaidan Zensho*; *Kaidan Toshio*; *Kaidanroku*; *Kaibara Yōjōkun*; *Kaibutsu Yoron*; *Kōkai Shō*; *Gakugei Shirin*; *Kakuchi Sōsho*; *Kagetsu Sōshi*; *Kashi Saken*; *Kasō Zusetsu Taizen*; *Kasō Hiden-shū*; *Kasō Hiroku*; *Gōheki Jirui*; *Kato Rakusho Shimōshō*; *Kana Sesetsu*; *Kanji Hajime Shinmei Hyōdan Gansan Daishi Hyakusen*; *Gansan Daishi Omikuji Handan*; *Kansan Yoroku*; *Hanshu* (Book of Han); *Kansō Kijutsu*; *Kanton Tōshi*; *Han Feizi*

Ki-Section

*Secret Techniques of Magic*; *New Theories on Demons and Deities: Collected Curiosities of Spirit Discourse*; *Compendium of Marvelous Accounts*; *Pictorial Guide to Famous Sites on the Kiso Road*; *Secret Traditions of Turtle Divination for Revealing Fortunes*; *Emergency Prescriptions*; *Famine Relief Protocols*; *Amusement Survey: Quick Reference for Nine Stars Geomancy*; *Inquiries on Cattle and Horses*; *Hidden Terms of Natural Philosophy*; *Outline of Mnemonic Mastery*; *Analysis of Unrevealed Nine Stars Chronology Across Ages*; *Reflections on Things at Hand*; *Modern Miracles Investigated*; *Discourses on Contemporary Affairs*; *Complete Manual of Courtly Rituals and Intellectual Arts*; *Secret Imperial Archives*

Ku-Section

*Kujiki*; *Kikon*; *Kusharon*; *Kumo no Itomaki*; *Gunsho Ruijū*; *Gunpōreki*; *Kunmō Sango*; *Kunmō Tenchi Ben*

Ke-Section

*Geien Nisshō*; *Yiwen Leiju*; *Guilin Manlu*; *Kongzi Jiayu*; *Ken’en Juppitsu*; *Genkai*; *Gen’genshū*; *Genkō Shakusho*; *Yuanshi*; *The Tale of Genji*; *Ganjuku-shū*; *Gendō Hōgen*; *Genjinron*; *Gen-Min Shiryaku*

Ko-Section

*Classic of Filial Piety*; *Kōshō Senden*; *Kōchō Jien*; *Kōtei Inpukyō*; *Kōtei Takkeikyō*; *Kōbō Daishi Ichidaiki*; *Koeki Sappyōden*; *Koeki Hakke Kō Wagen Zuihitsu*; *Book of the Later Han*; *Gogyō Taigi*; *Kokugo*; *Kokushi Ryaku*; *Kokuchō Kashitsuroku*; *Gokuraku Monogatari*; *Kogo Shūi*; *Kokin Kō*; *Kokin Jirui Zensho*; *Kokin Shingaku Ruijushō*; *Gokon-setsu*; *Kokin Chomonjū*; *Kokin Hakke Shūsui-shō*; *Kokin Yōbi Kō*; *Kokin Ruisho San'yō*; *Gozassho*; *Kojiki*; *Koshi Taigen Zusetsu*; *Kojidan*; *Goshu Shōji Rin Benri*; *Kokkai Zassan*; *Kotowazagusa*; *Gohō Shinron Gansai Bunryaku*; *Konjaku Monogatari*; *Kun'yō Manroku*

Sa-Section

*Saigoku Jibutsu Kigen* *Saisei Kibun* *Sago* *Sangai Isshin-ki* [*Sanken Ittai-sho*] *Sangen Hakke Kyūsei Hōi Uranai Dokuhan* *Sangoku Bukkyō Ryakushi Sangoku Bukkyō Dentū Engi* *Sansai Zue* *Sansairoku* *Sandai Jitsuroku* *Sandō Shikō* *Sanpō Ketsugi-shō* *San’yo Seiji*

Shi-Section

*Shiojiri*; *Shiobara Hanjōki*; *Records of the Grand Historian*; *Classic of Poetry*; *Essential Mysteries of Practical Discourse*; *On the Actual Existence of Hell*; *Self-Amusement Collection*; *Compendium of Affairs*; *Synthesized Classifications from Philosophical and Historical Essences*; *Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Government*; *Seismic Investigations*; *Seventy-Five Dharma Categories*; *Miscellaneous Records of Observations*; *Ten Precept Notes*; *Experimental Treatise on Mount Sumeru Cosmology*; *Brief History of Chinese Pedagogy*; *Shimada Kōan’s Tales from the Spirit World*; *Sand and Pebbles Collection*; *Gleaned Mustard Seeds*; *Book of Zhou*; *Abridged Eighteen Histories*; *Concise Biographies of Patriarchs*; *Strange Travels Through Provinces*; *Scripture of Lunar Mansions and Planets*; *Classified Dialogues of Master Zhu*; *Famous Sites Record of Shuzenji Hot Springs*; *Post-Meditation Discourses*; *Laughter After Meditation*; *Rituals of the Night Guardian Deity*; *Rites of Zhou*; *Xunzi*; *Zuo Commentary on Spring and Autumn Annals*; *Eight Treatises on Life Nurturing*; *Spring Wave Pavilion Notes*; *Merchant Family Secret Records*; *Leisure Hour Miscellany*; *Banana Window Random Jottings*; *Integrated Chronology of Japanese and Chinese Eras*; *Treatise on Consciousness-Only*; *Primer for Elementary Learning*; *Great Foundation Studies of Vital Branches*; *Classic of Documents*; *Continued Chronicles of Japan*; *Later Continued Chronicles of Japan*; *Complete Compendium of Historical Anecdotes*; *Nationwide Yokai Tales: Empty Ears Monkey*; *Nationwide Marvels: Journey West*; *Nationwide Marvels: Journey East*; *Nationwide Marvels: Wandering Accounts Nationwide Marvelous Travels*; *Discussions of Ancient Temples Nationwide*; *New Nationwide Hundred Tales*; *Rural Tales from Various Provinces*; *Collectanea of Philosophical Masters*; *Classified Compilation of Myriad Things*; *Divination Simplified for Household Use [Elementary Edition]*; *Record of Human Nations*; *New Ancient Matters Discussions*; *Shinto Shrine Primer*; *Examination of Shrines*; *Fifty Sacred Lot Divinations*; *Complete Manual of Divine Physiognomy [Orthodox Interpretation]*; *New Continued Ancient Matters Discussions*; *Oral Traditions of the Age of Gods*; *New Collection of Notable Accounts*; *Account of the Divine Child Medium*; *Chronicle of Divine Imperial Legitimacy*; *Divine Transformation Mystic Arts Brocade Pouch [Secret Scroll]*; *Debate on Spiritual Obscurities*

Su-Section

*Shui Jing* (Water Classic); *Sui Shu* (Book of Sui); *Suido Kaiben* (Treatise on Hydrology and Geomancy); *Bokushoku Shinan* (Manual of Ink Techniques); *Bokushoku Shōsen* (Primer on Ink Artistry); *Bokushoku Den* (Transmission of Ink Lore); *Sundai Zatsuwa* (Sundai Miscellany)

Se-Section

*Seigaku Jizai*; *Seikyō*; *Gōgo*; *Seijitsū*; *Seishin Keibi*; *Seiseki Gairon*; *Seimei Tsūhen Sen Hiden*; *Seimei Hiden Sokusan*; *Seiri Jigi*; *Seiri Taizen*; *Seji Hyakudan*; *Sesetsu*; *Sessai Kiyūdan*; *Shuo Fu*; *Zen'an Zuihitsu*; *Classic of Mountains and Seas*; *Strategies of the Warring States*; *Senshindō Sōkki*; *Sendai Annai*; *Sen Tetsu Sōdan*; *Sen Tetsu Zōden*

So-Section

Burial Classic; Comprehensive Mirror of Song and Yuan; Biographies of Eminent Song Monks; Zhuangzi; Records of Ōyama in Sagami Province; Book of Song; Tales of High and Low in the Judicial Chambers; Classified Extracts from Song Anecdotes; Grass and Tree Master; Continued Biographies of Eminent Monks; Continued Discussions of Ancient Matters; Continued Comprehensive Examination of Literature; Ancestral Records; Posthumous Manuscripts of Sokken; Basic Questions; Collected Works of Sorai

Ta-Section

*Daigaku*; *Taikyoku Zusetsu*; *[Mahāyāna] Awakening of Faith*; *Great Sage Nichiren’s Secret Transmission*; *Fundamental Principles of the Great Path*; *Dai Nihon Shi* (Great History of Japan); *Dictionary of Japanese Personal Names*; *Taiheiki* (Chronicle of Great Peace); *Taiping Yulan*; *Taiping Guangji*; *Takashima Ekisen*; *Takashima Ekidan*; *Treatise of the Exalted One on Response and Retribution*; *Pillar of Spiritual Power*; *Tankai*; *Chronicles of Marvelous Pursuits*

Chi-Section

*Chikusō Zuihitsu*; *Chūko Sōsho*; *Chūyō*; *Chōju Shokuji Kai*; *Chōsen Seibatsu Ki*; *Chinki Monogatari*

Tsu-Section

*Tsūhen Kikan*

Te-Section

*Teikin Ōrai*; *Chokkōroku*; *Ten’gen Nijūhasshuku Shinan*; *Denshūroku*; *Tenchō Mukyū Reki Tenchi Reiki Ki*; *Tenchi Wakumon Chin* [*Hyōshoku Wakumon Chin*]; *Tenpen Chi’i*; *Tenpen Chiyō Ketsugi Benmō* [*Ketsugi Benmō*]; *Tenpō Ōzasshi*; *Denpō Chie no Umi*

To-Section

Tōkaidō Meisho Zue; Tōmiya Academic Standards; Tōmiya Academic Secret Documents; Selected Tang Poems; Animal Electricity Theory by the Eight Great Masters of Tang and Song; Secret Testament of Dongfang Shuo; Introduction to Oriental Psychology; Tōen Shōsetsu; Reading Records

Na-Section

Summer Mountain Casual Talks; Southern Sojourn Chronicles; Southern Elder’s Physiognomy Methods; Southern Studio Records; History of the Southern Dynasties; Annals of the Southern Courts; Southern Fields Collectanea

Ni-Section

Twenty-Eight Lunar Mansions Compendium; Daily Weather Observations; Daily Quick Reference; Complete Works of the Two Chengs; Complete Biographies of Japanese Buddhist Rebirths; Japanese Household Secrets & Annual Rites Record; [Japan] Social Affairs Compendium; Nihon Shoki; History of Japanese Buddhism; Japanese Topographical Records; Two Rites Primer; Guide to Physiognomy; Millennial Perspectives on Physiognomy; Rapid Study of Physiognomy

Ne-Section

*Nenzan Chronicle*; *Annual Record of Auspicious Events*; *Compendium of Annual Rites*; *Yearly Eight Trigrams Handbook*; *Chronicle of Calendar Adjustment Methods*

No-Section

*Nōka Chōhōki*; *Nōsei Zensho*; *Shin'yū Zuihitsu*

Ha-Section

*Baien Sōsho*; *Plum Blossom Mind Divination Palm Guide*; *Ultimate Secrets of Trade*; *Shimonoseki Local Products*; *Extensive Records of the Strange*; *Compendium of Natural Studies*; *Collected Discourses on Widely Heard Matters*; *Ancient Sayings Through Broad Study*; *Primer on Eight Gates and Nine Stars Divination*; *Selected Inquiries on Eight Gates and Hidden Stems*; *Solitary Judgments of Eight Trigrams Crossroads Divination*; *Exposition on Eight Mansions Bright Mirror*; *First Dream Poetry Contest*; *Myriad Gold Industries Pouch*; *Analysis of All Things Strange and Mysterious (Strange Analysis)*; *Essential Stories of All Things*; *Great Miscellany of Myriad Treasures*; *Complete Book of Myriad Treasures*; *Records of Myriad Vulgar Treasures*; *Wanli Era Great Miscellany*; *Compendium of Three Lifetimes Physiognomy*

Hi-Section

*Secret Deliberations Pouch*; *Hundred Selections of Secret Affairs*; *Pouch of Secretly Transmitted World Treasures*; *One Night's Discourse*; *Reputation of a Hundred Tales* [*Ancient and Modern Hundred Tales Reputation*]; *Compendium of a Hundred Dharma Dialogues*; *Min Shu*

Fu-Section

*Fūu Fu Kokuji Ben*; *Fugaku Danpei*; *Fukurozōshi*; *Fushigi Benmō*; *Fusō Kenbun Shiki*; *Fusō Ryakuki*; *Butsugaku Hiden*; *Bukkoku Rekishō Hen*; *Bussō Tōki*; *Butsuri Kunmō*; *Butsuri Shōshiki*; *Butsurui Sōkan-shi*; *Fude no Susabi*; *Bunkai Hisha*; *Bunkai Hiroku*; *Bunken Tsūkō*

He-Section

*Hyōshoku Dan*; *Hyōsui Roku*; *Hekija Shōgen*

Ho-Section

*Forest of Pearls in the Garden of Dharma*; *Immediate Considerations on Directions*; *Record of Weighty Methods for Directions*; *Essential Handbook of Directional Mirrors*; *Discourse on Directional Mirrors*; *Thatched Hut Essays*; *Random Records from a Reed Window*; *Ritual Vessels*; *Snow Chronicles of Northern Echigo*; *Early Studies on Divination*; *Expanded Divination Methods for the Blind*; *Trivial Talks from the North Window*; *Categorized Texts on Divination Methods*; *Lotus Sutra*; *Illustrated Compendium of Lotus Sect Lots*; *Compendium of Materia Medica*; *Accounts of Miracles in Our Dynasty*; *Biographies of Eminent Monks of Our Dynasty*; *Garden of Our Dynasty’s Language*; *Study of Physiognomy in Our Dynasty*; *Chronology of Our Dynasty*; *Biographies of Immortals in Our Dynasty*; *Mirror of Fatal Destinies*

Ma-Section

Three Hundred Spells; Magic and Hypnotism; Magical Somnology

Mi-Section

Water Mirror; Blessings of the Way; Compendium of Marvelous Techniques; Collection of Marvelous Medicines and Techniques: Eternal Household Encyclopedia with Three Lifetimes Physiognomy; Records of Household Measurements

Mu-Section

Dream Pool Essays; Sutra of Immeasurable Life

Me-Section

Meiji Earthquake Records; Notable Products in Six Volumes

Mo-Section

*Primer for Illiterates*; *Mencius*; *Selections of Refined Literature*; *Veritable Records of Emperor Montoku*

Ya-Section

*Night Discourse Miscellany*; *Yamato Mysteries Chronicle*; *Origins of Japanese Matters*; *Origins of All Things in Great Yamato*; *Yamato Materia Medica*

Yu-Section

*Compendium of Essential Rites for the Sole Shinto Path*; *Minor Records of Light Carriages*; *Miscellaneous Morsels from Youyang*; *Essays to Cure Foolishness*; *Dream Union Longevity Treasure*; *Dream Divinations*

Yo-Section

*Chronicle of the Yōkai Gate and Victorious Light*; *Yangzi’s Supreme Mystery Classic*; *Random Notes from a Book-Filled Study*; *Records of Enchantresses*

Ra-Section

*Book of Rites*; *Thunderclap Chronicles*; *Razan Anthology*

Ri-Section

*Discourse on Profit and Fortune*; *Collected Words from the Garden of Practice*; *Essays by Rizai*; *Ryukyu Discussions*; *New Prefaces by Liu Xiang*; *Book of Liang*; *Compendium of Travel Precautions*; *Lüshi Chunqiu*

Ru-Section

*Classified National History*; *Classified Study of Notable Products*

Re-Section

*Miscellaneous Records of Spiritual Beasts*; *Calendar Exegesis*; *Proverbial Explanations of Calendar Days*; *Exposition on Calendar Dates*; *Liezi*; *Biographies of Immortals*; *Notes from Behind the Bamboo Screen*

Ro-Section

*Laozi*; *Analects*

Wa-Section

*Harmonized Japan-China Illustrated Compendium of the Three Realms*; *Study of Rare Japan-China Texts*; *Compiled Japan-China Chronicles*; *Japan-China Notable Numerical Classifications*; *Chronology of Enlightenment in Japan, China, and the West*; *Investigation of Japan-China Calendar Origins*; *Guide to Japanese Kun Readings*; *Classified Compendium of Japanese Names*

Other than these, I omitted the tables of contents for magazines, newspapers, and Western books.

The inclusion of even extremely common and accessible works in this bibliography stemmed from yokai-related matters being prevalent among the general populace.

When I first applied myself to this endeavor, though ten winters and summers had passed since then, my innate intellectual mediocrity still yielded no fruitful results from these investigations.
Moreover, my duties in recent years had become manifold, leaving me unable to devote my efforts solely to this single matter.
Amidst the relentless busyness that had accumulated to that day—and due to never having reported these results even once—the scholars who had sent yokai-related facts from all quarters ceaselessly reproached me.
I truly could not help but blush with shame.
In that situation, disregarding the immaturity of my research, I hurriedly compiled it and thus brought it forth publicly to the world.
The numerous omissions and errors—these responsibilities I naturally assumed.
Even were this to invite derision from eminent scholars, I would not shrink from it.
Yet my humble intention—as previously stated—remained fixed on assisting national prosperity and enabling citizens to fulfill their fundamental duties; should this endeavor have contributed even marginally toward advancing our cultural destiny through fortune's grace, no greater fulfillment of my original purpose could exist.
Since I originally possessed neither capital nor property, establishing enterprises to expand civic strength lay beyond my capacity.
Moreover, being ignorant of worldly affairs and unversed in principles prevented me from political discourse aimed at constitutional development.
Therefore did my undertaking of yokai research spring from an inner compulsion I could not suppress.
I besought you learned gentlemen to discern this modest intent and bestow magnanimous pardon.

As philosophy was my field of expertise, though I had studied it to some extent over the years, when it came to physics and medicine, these were realms I knew nothing about.
However, as it had been impossible to complete Yokai Studies without addressing this portion, I had come to include these two disciplines here; yet I must confess that the explanations provided were not few in number where I had reached conclusions based on my own conjectures.
This too compelled me to seek the critical corrections of specialists in these fields.
Moreover, as the portion pertaining to philosophy was not an established discipline alongside those other fields but an unestablished one, many aspects also relied on my arbitrary conjectures.
If misunderstandings should arise from this, I might make corrections after reconsideration in the future.
I myself knew that this endeavor could not be expected to succeed through the efforts of a single person in one generation.
Truly, such a grand completion had to await several generations hence.
Therefore, I was merely cultivating these seedlings within the academic field.

The reason the endeavor of yokai studies collects many phenomena transmitted through the Orient and merely references those found in the Occident as supplementary materials is that its research purpose lies in explaining our nation's yokai.
Moreover, most yokai in our country have come from China, while those that can truly be called indigenous to Japan remain extremely few.
According to my estimations, among the various kinds of yokai transmitted in our country today, seven-tenths appear to have originated from China, two-tenths from India, and one-tenth to be indigenous to Japan.
Therefore, while I searched documents from our country and China as extensively as my limited capacity permitted, I consulted merely several dozen Western documents.

Though yokai studies may resemble a lowly pursuit, its sphere of relevance proves truly vast and its influence profoundly significant; thus while its explication goes without saying for educators and religious figures, it becomes evident that reference to it proves necessary even for physicians, literati, poets, painters, actors, historians, police officers, soldiers, politicians, and legal scholars.
Furthermore, among the common populace—from those engaged in practical industries like agriculture, manufacturing, and commerce down to women and girls—all must thoroughly comprehend these principles; this requires no elaboration from me.
Therefore these lectures take as their primary aim fostering broad public comprehension: examples are selected for maximal practical relevance; prose adheres to simplicity and clarity as guiding principles; citations from other works provide full bibliographic details—recording titles, volume numbers, chapter names, and page counts—to facilitate reference tracking.
Readers, I entreat you to grasp this fully.

Since first undertaking this research in prior years, I founded the Philosophy Institute with the aim of teaching accelerated courses at the literary university, and embarked on a nationwide tour with the intention of establishing specialized departments for National Studies, Chinese Studies, and Buddhist Studies.
Therefore, my research too reached a point where it had to be temporarily suspended.
However, during my regional tours, as the firsthand observations I made were not few, there could be no doubt they proved beneficial to my research.
The locations of that tour which relate to this matter shall be listed on the left.

The locations where I stayed during my tours comprised one circuit, one urban prefecture, forty-eight provinces, and 215 locations (if the number of provinces passed through during that time is added, this becomes sixty-two provinces).

Ise Province (Yamada, Matsusaka, Tsu, Isshinden, Yokkaichi, Kuwana); Owari Province (Nagoya, Atsuta, Tsushima, Ōno, Handa); Mikawa Province (Toyohashi, Okazaki, Kita-Ōhama, Nishio, Gamagōri, Toyokawa); Tōtōmi Province (Kakegawa, Hamamatsu, Hirata, Nakaizumi); Suruga Province (Shizuoka, Ogawa, Shimizu, Fujieda); Sagami Province (Ōiso); Musashi Province (Oshi); Kazusa Province (Chiba, Mobara); Ōmi Province (Ōtsu, Toyogata, Gokashō, Aichigawa, Hachiman, Hikone, Nagahama); Mino Province (Gifu); Kōzuke Province (Annaka, Matsuida, Satomi, Takasaki, Hachiman); Iwase Province (Fukushima); Rikuzen Province (Tsukidate, Ichinoseki); Rikuchū Province (Morioka, Hanamaki); Mutsu Province (Hirosaki, Kuroishi, Itayanoki, Ajigasawa, Kizukuri, Goshogawara, Aomori, Noheji); Uzen Province (Yonezawa, Yamagata, Sagae, Tendō, Tateoka, Shinjō, Tsuruoka); Ugo Province (Sakata, Matsuine, Yuzawa, Jūmonji, Yokote, Numadate, Rokugō, Ōmagari, Akita, Tsuchizaki, Inome, Noshiro, Takinosu, Ōdate, Ōgita); Echigo Province (Arai, Takada, Naoetsu, Okada, Yasuoka, Sakai, Daishihoji; Kaji; Niigata; Nuttari; Kuzutsuka; Shibata; Kameda; Niitsu; Tagami; Kamo; Shirone; Sanjō; Mitsuke; Uramura; Katae; Senju; Muikamachi; Shiozawa; Koide; Ojiya; Nagaoka; Ōmote; Teradomari; Jizōdō; Shinmachi; Kanō; Noda; Kashiwazaki); Tanba Province (Kameoka; Fukuchiyama); Tango Province (Maizuru; Miyazu; Mineyama); Tajima Province (Izushi; Toyooka); Inaba Province (Tottori); Hōki Province (Nagase; Kurayoshi; Yonago); Izumo Province (Matsue; Hirata; Imaichi; Kizuki); Iwami Province (Hane; Ōta; Ōmori; Ōkuni; Takuno; Ōkōchi; Yunotsu; Gōda; Hamada; Masuda; Tsuwano); Harima Province (Tatsuno); Bizen Province (Shizutani); Bingo Province (Onomichi); Aki Province (Hiroshima; Kure); Suō Province (Yamaguchi; Nishikiwa; Miyaichi; Tokuyama; Hanaoka; Kudamatsu; Murotsu; Iwakuni); Nagato Province (Shimonoseki; Toyoura; Tanabe; Yoshida; Ōki; Ikuta; Funaki; Kōtō; Hagi; Akiyoshi; Ōta; Shōmei-ichi; Kibato; Hitomaru-tōge; Kawajiri; Kawatana); Kii Province (Kōyasan; Wakayama); Awaji Province (Ichimura; Sumoto; Shizuki); Awa Province (Tokushima; Kawashima; Wajiki; Ikeda; Murozu); Sanuki Province (Marugame; Takamatsu; Nagao); Iyo Province (Matsuyama; Uwajima; Imabari); Tosa Province (Kōchi; Kokubunji; Aki; Tano; Yamada; Susaki); Chikuzen Province (Fukuoka; Wakamatsu); Chikugo Province (Kurume; Yoshii); Buzen Province (Kokura; Nakatsu; Shiida); Bungo Province (Hita); Hizen Province (Nagasaki; Saga); Higo Province (Kumamoto); Oshima Province (Hakodate; Mori); Shiribeshi Province (Esashi; Suttsu; Utasutsu; Isoya; Iwanai; Yoichi; Furubira; Bikuni; Otaru; Temiya); Ishikari Province (Sapporo; Iwamizawa); Teshio Province (Mashike); Iburi Province (Muroran)

As I now conclude this "Introduction," I shall state my true aspirations and long-cherished ambitions to declare them to the scholars of the realm.
Since we stand between heaven and earth through the dual foundations of mind and body, we bear two great obligations: to love truth and protect the nation.
When we look inward—having unveiled the bright moon of truth in those regions where the mind's heavens lie clouded deep—to love this and take joy in it constitutes the scholar's fundamental duty.
When looking outward—having built the nation's fortresses where society's seas run turbulent—to protect and defend these remains every citizen's obligation.
I alone aimed to achieve these two great purposes.
Therefore I had always declared: "I harbor no desire to scramble after glory along power's path, no passion to covet fame between praise and blame—possessing only this sincere heart to dwell lifelong in humble lanes delighting in truth, seated beneath thatch while contemplating our land."
Though those words might verge on madness, I engraved them upon my heart's core each dawn and dusk, never forgetting them for an instant.
Having first initiated yokai research, then founded the Philosophy Institute, next announced specialized departments' establishment, and now publishing *Lectures on Yokai Studies* to the world—these became none other than my efforts to enact those twin aims of nation-protection and truth-cherishing.
To investigate yokai's principles by dispelling False Supernatural and revealing True Supernatural grew from truth-loving spirit; to apply this practically—healing people's deluded suffering while improving worldly education—sprang from nation-guarding sincerity.
Thus did Yokai Studies' endeavor come to fulfill both these great objectives through unified practice.

Behold, I am one who believes in the reality of ideals. When considering this in the material realm, I believe all creation in heaven and earth manifests as crystallized and congealed ideals; when considering this in the human realm, I believe the Imperial Household and national polity equally embody ideals through their radiant splendor. Thus within the world's domain does all creation's exquisite beauty harmonize with spirituality's sublime mystery until heaven, earth and all directions float enveloped in mist-laden divine essence; while within the nation's domain does the Imperial Household's sacred purity mirror our vital forces of loyalty and filial piety until the national polity shines resplendent within numinous divine radiance. Now through my Yokai Studies research should I succeed in dispelling False Supernatural to reveal True Supernatural, I believe humanity may come to embody this principle through lived understanding. In recent years as social conditions trend toward moral decline's barren age—as hearts grow shallow through dissipation's currents, as national sanctity diminishes while loyalty-filial piety stand poised to lose their vital vigor—the broad elucidation of this principle proves essential not merely for truth's sake but indeed constitutes our nation's most urgent imperative.

I shall now add a final word regarding religion and education to conclude this discourse.
I consider that both today's religious figures and educators wander lost in mists of delusion, knowing not where to find their haven.
And that which can thoroughly sweep away these mists of delusion is indeed the pursuit of Yokai Studies.
Sweeping these away through Yokai Studies is akin to uprooting weeds from the mind's soil.
There, for the first time, it becomes possible to make the seedlings of religion and education flourish abundantly.
Therefore, I now declare: “Yokai Studies serves as the gateway to religion and the vanguard advancing education.”
Religion’s so-called self-power and other-power sects shall attain belief and enlightenment only after Yokai Studies dispels the deluding mists of False Supernatural; likewise, education’s so-called intellectual and moral teachings shall be developed and cultivated only after Yokai Studies unveils the bright moon of True Supernatural.
As for religion itself and education itself, since these would somewhat digress from our main discussion, I shall not expound upon them here.
In essence, the purpose of Yokai Studies is none other than to sweep away False Supernatural and reveal True Supernatural.
This is precisely what I meant by “lighting the mind’s lamp to read heaven and earth,” as I advocated at the beginning of this volume.
Ah, is this not humanity’s supreme true joy?
The detailed explication shall be expounded upon entering the main discourse.

[In the original (third edition), the following essay titled "Preface to Lectures on Yokai Studies" (dated August 10, Meiji 26 [1893]) was included; however, as the same text already appeared from page 13, line 8 to page 14, line 2 of this volume, the relevant passage was omitted.]

Supplementary Bibliography

In addition to the bibliography previously listed, I gathered documents consulted beyond those citations along with materials acquired later as reference works, and presented their titles on the left.
[The original text arranged entries in iroha order using historical kana orthography, but this was converted to gojūon order.]

I Section

*A Brief Account of Dignified Demeanor* *Yijian Zhi* *Compendium of Health Preservation* *Miscellaneous Notes in a Single Word* *Tales of Cause and Effect*

U Section

*Chronicles of Cloud Repose* *Essays from the Cloud Chamber* *Records of Cloud-Pleasure Observations*

E Section

*Anecdotes of British and Chinese [Affairs]* *Elegant Tales of Mist and Haze* *Chronicle of Lord Yakukuni's Governance* *Miscellaneous Records of Swallow Stones* *Accounts of Southern Yan*

O Section

*The Essentials of Rebirth*・*Commentary Guide to The Essentials of Rebirth*・*Memoir Drafts*・*Essential Compendium of Ancient Wisdom*

Ka Section

*Strange Tales of Monsters and Folklore*・*Hedge Grass*・*Records of the Mountain of Learning*・*Jade Dew in the Crane Forest*・*Katabisha-shi [Marginalia]*・*Dregs from the Sea of Learning*・*Miscellaneous Records of Temple Grounds*・*Leisure Margin Notes・Han's Outer Commentary on Poetry*・*Leisurely Sage's Random Records*・*Collection Exhorting Good and Punishing Evil*・*Idle Window: Japanese Essays*・*Chapter on Resonances*

Ki Section

*Pseudo Classic of Mountains and Seas* *Compendium of Spectral Phenomena* *Collated Proverbs of Spirits: Six Scrolls of Righteous Chu* *Random Notes from Tachibana Hut* *Records of Prayer Resonances* *Manual of Rare Diseases* *Wanderer's Essays* *Educational Garden Digest* *Jade and Stone Miscellany* *The Recluse Scholar* *One Hundred Tales of Modern Times*

Ku Section

Essays on Illusory Blossoms Discourse Collection on Ephemeral Flowers

Ke Section

*Record of Seasonal Events in Jingchu*・*Miscellaneous Notes on Enlightenment*・*Essays on Enlightenment*・*Primer for the Forest of Arts*・*Resolving Doubts: A Primer*・*Discourse on Present-World Benefits*・*Manual of Exoteric-Esoteric Dignified Demeanor*

Ke Section

*Records of Filial Piety and Miraculous Auspices* *Treatise on Compassionate Life* *Mineral Compendium* *Expanded Yamato Materia Medica* *Primer of National Characters* *Collection of Ancient and Modern Miscellanies* *Selected Classical Narratives* *Five Dynasties Valley Echoes Collection* *Valley Echoes Continued Collection* *Discourse on Protecting Dharma and Aiding Governance* *Kunyu Essential Compendium* *Forgotten Tales of Past and Present* *Night Stories of Past and Present*

Sa Section

Zassō Nōwa・Minokasa Amadan・Saru Chōmon-shū・San'in Zatsuroku・Sangai Gi・Sanga Ri・Sangoku Jinteki Mondō・Sansai Ihen・Sansai Innen Bengi・Sansai Kikan・Sansai Shoshin Hongi・Sansei-roku・Sanbō Kannō-roku

Shi Section

*Biography of Cien*・*Study of Celestial Stems and Earthly Branches*・*Random Records of Shisai*・*Seven Scrolls of Observations on Earthquakes and Tsunamis [Tiantai Terminology Compendium]*・*Legend of the White Fox of Shinoda*・*Origins of Things*・*Comprehensive Survey of Treasured Objects*・*Primer for the Shakya Clan*・*Essential References for the Shakya Clan*・*Self-Mirror Records of the Buddhist Order*・*Supplementary Biographies of Rebirth*・*Supplementary Records*・*Supplementary Accounts of Three Treasures' Resonances*・*Records of the Sect’s Mirror*・*Primer of Seventeen Histories*・*Miscellaneous Discourses on Self-Cultivation*・*Handbook of Shugendō Lore*・*Thirty-Three Records of Shugendō*・*Biographies of Shugendō Practitioners*・*Shugendō Primer*・*Accounts of Strange Occurrences*・*Brief Discourse on Mount Sumeru*・*Collection of Essential Secret Teachings*・*Accumulated Notes on the Spring and Autumn Annals*・*Miscellaneous Records for Leisure Hours*・*Self-Awareness Records of Laughter and Play*・*Collected Observations from Contemplative Mountains*・*Conversations at a Small Window*・*Random Notes from Pine Pavilion*・*In Praise of Sacred Lots*・*True Accounts of Provincial Ghost Stories*・*Tales of Provincial Lore*・*Excerpts for Dispelling Sleepiness*・*Compendium of Profound Inquiries from Dusty Thickets*・*Garden of New Words*・*Records of Human Nations*・*New Collection of Sand and Stones*・*Compendium on Mental Nature, Sin, Merit, and Causality*・*Shinto Terminology Compendium*・*Tales of Historical Figures*・*Discourse on Divine and Buddhist Resonances*

Su Section

*Zuiiroku*・*Zuō Jindorokushū*・*Zuito Kidan*・*Sujōshū*

Se Section

*Records of the Western Regions* *Miscellaneous Records of the Western Capital* *Tales of Seimei* *Leisurely Discourses at Jicui* *Comprehensive Survey of Almsgiving* *Garden of Anecdotes from A New Account of the Tales of the World* *Primer for Zen Gardens* *Immortal Arts: The Dog Zhangzi*

So Section

*Brief History of Monastic Traditions* *In Search of the Supernatural* *Humble Warnings from the Grassroots* *Forest Gatherings* *Continuation of Biyang Random Records* *Refutation of Vulgar Theories* *Continuation of Primers* *Garden of Ancestral Court Affairs*

Ta Section

*Records of Daikokuten's Miraculous Efficacy*・*Numerical Categories of the Buddhist Canon*・*Collection on Supporting the Nation through the Buddhist Canon*・*The Peaceful Nature of the Imperial Nation*・*Records of Sustained Efficacy from the Taishang Ganying Pian*・*Jeweled Comb Box*・*Resources for Sharpening Eloquence*

Chi Section

*Mirror of Wisdom*・*Treatise on Longevity and Hygiene*・*Collection of Chōmei's Awakening*・*Random Notes from Chosan*・*Fire Prevention Manual*

Tsu Section

*Popular Five Miscellanies* *Popular Japanese-Chinese Essays*

Te Section

*Admonitory Chronicles* *Study on Tengu Terminology* *Records of Rebirth Testimonies in India* *Supplementary Discourses on the Heavenly Pillar and Five Peaks: Astronomical Theories* *Popular Discussions on Astronomy*

To Section

*Biographies of Tang Talents*・*Contemporary Two-Sided Mirror*・*Peach Grotto's Posthumous Writings*・*Illustrated Primer of Tang China*・*Children's Folktales*・*Miscellaneous Records of Eastern Travels*・*Stones from Other Mountains*

Na Section

*South Sea Contribution Chronicle*・*Southern Ridge Master*

Ni Section

*Diagrammatic Explanation of Solar and Lunar Orbits*・*Records of Japanese Rebirths in the Pure Land*・*History of Japanese Figures*・*Chronicle of Japanese Miracles and Wonders*・*Fallen Leaves in the Garden of Culinary Miscellany*・*Miscellaneous Records of Forbearance*・*Precious Mirror of Humans and Devas*

Ha Section

*Plum Window Notes*・*Natural History*・*Myriad Gold Industry Compendium*

Hi Section

Hiji Matsuge・Himitsu Anjin Ōjō Yōshū・Hyaku In'enshū・Hyakka Kikōden・Byakkotsū・Byōdōsaku

Fu Section

*Comprehensive Customs*・*Essentials of Cultivating Blessed Fields*・*Essential Sayings of Samurai Lore*・*Biographies of Fusō Recluses*・*Discourse Notes on Fusō Ghost Stories*・*Summary of Fusō Historical Anecdotes*・*Fusō Primer*・*Chronicle of Mountain Origins*・*Origins of the Buddha Tooth Relic*・*Disputations on Buddhist Astronomy*・*Accounts of Buddha Relic Efficacy*・*Records of Buddhist Deity Resonances*・*Comprehensive Records of Buddhist Patriarchs*・*Treasury of Buddhist Dharma*・*Classified Summary of Historical Anecdotes*

Ho Section

*Records of Karmic Retribution and Influence*・*Compendium of Dharma Forest*・*Strange Tales of Northern Echigo*・*Seven Wonders Investigation of Northern Echigo: Lotus Sutra Efficacy Records*・*Miraculous Accounts of the Lotus Sutra*・*Japanese Medical Discourses*・*Japanese Ghost Story Traditions*・*Biographies of Japanese High Priests*・*Garden of Japanese Language*・*Collection of Japanese Historical Causalities*・*Japanese Provincial Gazetteers*・*Study of Japanese Shrines*・*Japanese Chronicles of Divine Searches [Discourse Notes on Fusō Ghost Stories]*・*Dictionary of Japanese Proverbs*・*Compendium of Japanese Colloquialisms*・*Translated Terminology Glossary*

Ma Section

*Ten-Thousand-Year Grass*

Mi Section

*Miyagawa-sha Random Notes*・*Teachings on Divine Protection*・*Folk Seasonal Almanac*・*Essential Records of People's Livelihood*

Mu Section

*Treatise on the Non-Existence of Ghosts*

Me Section

*Brief Biographies of Eminent Figures*・*Chronicle of Divine Wonders of the Meiwa Era*

Ya Section

*Night Window Ghost Stories*・*Essays of Nocturnal Discourses*・*Shattered Willow Bones*・*Treatise on Yamato's Three Teachings*

Yu Section

*Essays on Curing Foolishness*

Yo Section

*Decayed Tales Under Cherry Shade*・*Treatise on the Essentials of Nourishing Life*・*Health Satchel*・*Discourse on Health Preservation*・*Tales of Wellness*

Ri Section

*Pear Window Essays*・*Transmissions of Vinaya Resonance*・*Comprehensive Annals of Buddhism's Flourishing*・*Dragon-Comfort Pure Land Writings*・*Secret Notes on Dual Shinto*・*Rainy Night Tea Conversations*

Re Section

*Dialogues on Souls*

Ro Section

*A Single Insight from Dredging the Sea* [Whimsical Sketches Essays]

Wa Section

*Harmony of Japan and China* [Night Discourses]・*Miscellaneous Inquiries on Japanese-Chinese Texts* [Study of Rare Japanese-Chinese Books]・*Inquiries on the Crying-Stopping Coin* [Dharma Realm Inquiries on the Crying-Stopping Coin]