Pathway to Japanese Literature

The Dream of Space Travel

There was no dream as wonderful and innocent as that of space travel.
If the possibility of realizing such a dream had finally emerged, then for us who were tormented by war's nightmares, this would have been nothing less than a refreshing antidote.
The fact that the U.S. Navy ordered a rocket capable of 5,800 miles per hour demonstrated this possibility, but first creating an artificial satellite remained space travel's essential first step.
Were this achieved and used as a foothold for launching spacecraft from orbit, travel to celestial bodies would become relatively straightforward.
Attempting to launch directly from Earth to celestial bodies resembled trying to climb Everest without establishing base camps.
If one intended to reach Everest's summit, one first had to establish base camps.
And in this case, artificial satellites served as those base camps.

Thus, whether the possibility of creating an artificial satellite materializes marks the crossroads between space travel becoming either a scientific problem or the stuff of science fiction.
The specifications of the rocket recently commissioned by the U.S. Navy hold considerable significance in demonstrating one viable approach to constructing this artificial satellite.

Toward the end of World War II, Hitler had ordered research into creating such an artificial satellite.
This story appeared in Japanese newspapers at the time, so many readers must still recall it.
Yet being such an improbable notion, most people likely dismissed it as either wild fabrication or sensationalist reporting, scarcely giving it a second thought.
But viewed through today's lens, even if Hitler had seriously pursued this endeavor, there would have been nothing inherently absurd about it.
For in present-day America—albeit within limited circles—the earnest contemplation of artificial satellites ultimately traces back to refining the V2 rocket developed in Germany during World War II.

If that were the case, then even had Hitler turned his attention to artificial satellites immediately after completing the V2 rocket, there would be nothing strange in that.
Rather, it would have been an entirely natural progression—indeed, one might even call it shrewd.
For had an artificial satellite been realized according to Hitler’s fantasies, Germany need not have lost the war.
Conversely, both America and Britain would have been forced to kneel before him.

However, this was an enormous undertaking that could not be rushed.
Even if America were to fully mobilize its current scientific and industrial capabilities and pour nearly unlimited financial resources into the effort, some experts said it would still take at least ten years.
Thus, given Germany’s capabilities at the time, there was no possibility of it keeping pace with the war.

Hitler’s Dream Carried On in America

Shortly after the end of the recent war—that is, within 1945—German rocket researchers migrated to America.
There, in America, they embarked on a large-scale effort to improve the V2 rocket.
Among them were Dr. Braun, one of the co-inventors of the V2, and Mr. Ley, founder of the German Rocket Society.

Among them, Dr. Braun appears to have long devoted himself to research on artificial satellite construction as technical director at an Army-affiliated research institute.

However, the primary purpose lay not in the artificial satellite itself, but in creating a guidable long-range rocket.

Postwar America poured considerable effort into long-range rocket research.
The rocket research institute constructed in New Mexico’s white sands was extensively utilized as a test site for rockets developed through nationwide research initiatives.
On December 17, 1946,the altitude record of114miles achieved there witha single-stage rocket becamea world record.
At war’s end,the German V2rocket had seta109-mile record ona small Baltic Sea island,butthis was surpassed there.
However,two-stage rockets achieveda record altitudeof250miles.
An altitudeof250miles representsan astonishing height.
The stratosphere beginsatapproximately7miles and endsaround50miles.
Beyond lies what we callthe ionosphere extendingtoabout180miles.
Infact above120miles atmospheric resistance becomes negligible,makingit essentiallya vacuum.
While no clear boundary existsastheatmosphere gradually thins,the region beyond near-zero resistanceis termedspace—Earth’s outer threshold.
Thus,the two-stage rocket reaching250miles hadalready penetrated halfwayintospace.
We may therefore declare humanity hadtakenitsfirst stepintospace travel.

If a three-stage rocket were constructed and the third-stage rocket’s initial velocity could be set to 14,364 miles per hour, calculations showed that this third-stage rocket would continue orbiting Earth indefinitely.
In other words, it became an artificial satellite.
And in order to make the third-stage rocket reach that velocity, it sufficed to set the second-stage rocket’s initial speed to 5,256 miles per hour.
However, the rocket that Martin Company received an order for from the Navy was specified to reach a speed of 5,800 miles per hour.
If that were completed, it was considered that the third-stage rocket could naturally be manufactured.
In other words, Hitler’s dream was steadily demonstrating its potential for realization in America at that time.

The Mechanics of Artificial Satellites

Earth takes a year to orbit the Sun, and the Moon takes about twenty-nine days to make one revolution around Earth.
The reason Earth does not plunge into the Sun and the Moon does not fall toward Earth is that universal gravitation and the centrifugal force arising from orbital motion are in balance.
When you fill a bucket with water and swing it around, even when the bucket is inverted, the water does not spill out—this follows the same principle.

Since universal gravitation increases as distance decreases, if one wishes to create an artificial satellite closer to Earth, it becomes necessary to increase the centrifugal force—that is, to increase the orbital velocity.
Since this calculation can be easily performed, for example, if one creates a satellite with an orbit at an altitude of 22,300 miles from the Earth’s surface, it will complete one revolution around the Earth in twenty-four hours.

The person who proposed such a plan existed over thirty years ago, but at that time, since no one imagined rockets would advance as they have today, it remained confined to the realm of science fiction.
What Dr. Braun, the aforementioned inventor of the V2 rocket, has been advocating in America in recent years is a two-hour orbit around Earth.
With this approach, the required altitude becomes much lower—an orbit at 1,075 miles above Earth’s surface suffices.
However, this necessitates a dramatic increase in velocity to 15,840 miles per hour.
Once this speed is attained, universal gravitation—that is, Earth’s gravitational pull—and centrifugal force balance each other, causing the rocket to perpetually orbit Earth at an altitude of 1,075 miles.
We shall designate this orbital path as the two-hour orbit.
Following this naming convention, the Moon’s orbital period would be termed a 29-day orbit.

Needless to say，rockets had to maintain propulsion until they reached this high speed．However，once this velocity was attained，there was no longer any need to continue propulsion．Since the rocket engine could be turned off，the motion could continue indefinitely through inertia．A thrown stone，for a certain distance after leaving the hand，travels under its own momentum—this is the same principle．In the case of a stone，pulled by Earth’s gravitational pull，it soon fell back down；but in this case，since centrifugal force balancing gravity acted upon it，it did not fall．Of course，the Moon has no engine whatsoever yet continues to orbit Earth indefinitely．It was the same principle．Therefore，this rocket only needed to carry enough fuel to reach the predetermined orbit—that is，the two-hour orbit—and attain the required velocity there．Of course，since consideration also had to be given to the return journey，a slight surplus of fuel needed to be carried，but this amounted to an extremely small quantity．

The discussion had become somewhat intermixed between artificial satellites and rockets; let us clarify the issues there.
The first problem was to build a rocket that reached the two-hour orbit (1,075 miles) and attained satellite velocity (15,840 mph).
If this could be achieved, they would load large quantities of synthetic resin tire materials onto it, transport them to space, assemble them there, and construct an artificial satellite.

What was intriguing was that once entering this orbit, Earth’s gravity ceased acting on humans, objects, or anything else.
It was indeed exerting force; however, because centrifugal force acted in the opposite direction, all objects ended up floating in midair.
Though in reality everything moved at speeds approaching sixteen thousand miles per hour, since all entities within this orbit traveled at identical velocities, they appeared to float motionless in the vacuum of space.

Since there was of course no air, humans had to wear so-called spacesuits resembling diving suits and carry air tanks on their backs.
As these suits only needed to withstand internal pressure slightly below one atmosphere, they did not require the thick material used in diving suits.
This allowed for considerable freedom of movement.
When humans wearing such suits exited the rocket, they would end up floating in the vacuum.
This aspect was a scene that frequently appeared in space travel films of that era, but that depiction could be considered scientifically accurate.

It was impossible to transport all large tire materials at once.
Therefore they were divided into about twenty parts and rockets were launched multiple times to carry them into orbit.
Assembling these components in gravity-free space was then considered feasible.

Conception of the Artificial Satellite

Once a rocket capable of reaching satellite orbit was developed, they loaded it with construction materials for an artificial satellite and launched into space.
Since a single rocket could only carry about thirty-five tons of cargo, during the initial satellite construction phase, it became necessary to launch rockets one after another at roughly four-hour intervals.
These rockets had their launch times precisely adjusted to reach a specific point in orbit.
Once they reached the satellite construction site, they unloaded the cargo; however, since these cargoes existed in a world where gravity did not act, they remained floating in space.
Humans wore spacesuits and, while floating in space themselves, began assembling these construction materials.

In short, since what needed to be created was a doughnut-shaped structure measuring forty-two ken (approximately seventy-six meters) in diameter, the materials were divided into roughly twenty small compartments and transported.
They filled these synthetic resin bags with air, inflated them, and assembled them into a ring shape.
The air had of course also been transported from Earth.
They needed to ensure air did not leak out—a principle identical to how submarines were constructed to prevent water ingress.

Dividing this doughnut-shaped artificial satellite into numerous small compartments proved advantageous when struck by meteors.
Because meteor velocities were extremely high, they could not be prevented.
If a compartment was pierced through, there was no countermeasure other than sealing off that compartment, repairing the hole in the wall, and replenishing the air.
Meteors were extremely numerous at this altitude.
However, the probability of this artificial satellite being pierced by meteors remained far lower than that of pedestrians being struck by automobiles on major city streets.
Therefore, there was no need for concern.
In addition to meteors, countless minuscule particles called cosmic dust existed; these were defended against by affixing thin metal plates to the outer walls.

This large doughnut-shaped structure measuring forty-two ken in diameter was thick, with a cross-sectional diameter of about five ken.
Passenger aircraft that flew over the Pacific also had cylindrical fuselages, their cylinders measuring less than two ken in diameter.
First, one could imagine a cylinder with a diameter approximately three times that of a transoceanic passenger aircraft’s fuselage formed into a large doughnut shape.
Thus, the artificial satellite’s interior had ample spatial capacity, making it easy to divide into three floors.

The sole troublesome aspect was that, due to the absence of gravity, even when partitioned into three floors, one could not discern which direction constituted the ceiling or floor. Even when installing equipment, the slightest touch would send it drifting away, and with the inhabitants floating midair, there remained no possibility of sitting down. Therefore, it became necessary to create artificial gravity and establish an up-down orientation. The reason for adopting this doughnut shape was that it facilitated the creation of artificial gravity.

Creating artificial gravity might have sounded daunting, but it proved surprisingly straightforward.
All that was needed was to slowly rotate this doughnut-shaped structure.
This meant the artificial satellite would also spin on its own axis.
When implemented, centrifugal force acted upon everything inside, effectively serving as gravity.
Every object within became pressed outward from the wheel's center.
Thus, the wall on that side formed the floor, while the direction facing the wheel's center became the ceiling.
However, unlike true gravity, centrifugal force generated Coriolis acceleration for moving objects.
Humans found themselves slightly unsteady when walking or turning their heads.
This necessitated keeping the satellite's rotation as slow as possible.
Setting one full rotation every twenty-two seconds minimized Coriolis acceleration to negligible levels.
At this speed, centrifugal force equaled one-third of Earth's gravity.
Satellite inhabitants consequently experienced their weight reduced by two-thirds, enabling surprisingly agile movement.
Imparting rotation required only a single small rocket engine attached to the structure.
Once achieving the designated spin rate, operators could shut down the engine, leaving perpetual rotation through inertia.

An intriguing aspect was that people on the opposite side of the wheel's center perceived an inversion of up and down.
Both perceived the center as up.
This was not particularly unusual—residents of Tokyo and those near Buenos Aires in South America lived with their "up" and "down" inverted relative to one another, yet experienced no inconvenience.
The same principle applied.

When the artificial satellite rotated independently, there was one inconvenience.
The difficulty lay in how rockets transporting supplies from Earth found docking challenging.
Therefore, engineers passed through the doughnut's center and ran a single thick spoke through it.
This structure was constructed from the same material as the fuselage and contained an internal ladder.
As one climbed this ladder from the doughnut section, the sensation of gravity gradually diminished until reaching the center, where their body floated completely midair.
This occurred because it lay at the rotational center where centrifugal force did not act.
When passing through that point and grasping the ladder's opposite side, their previous up-down orientation reversed—the opposite side now became downward.

The docking point for transport rockets from Earth—what might be called the port—was constructed at this central location. Being the rotational center where the point itself remained stationary made it convenient for docking. That said, supply rockets did not directly “land” at this spot. Even a slight miscalculation in speed adjustment risked collision. Instead, the rocket would first position itself at a nearby point along the orbit, matching the artificial satellite’s velocity to settle onto the orbital path. With their relative positions now fixed, both rocket and satellite appeared motionless in space. From there, the rocket deployed a “barge” laden with necessary supplies. This barge—or space taxi—carried a small rocket engine and was engineered to maneuver freely in this gravity-free realm. To those accustomed to building space rockets themselves, fabricating such devices seemed elementary by comparison. The space taxi took a cylindrical form with hemispherical ends.

The docking port was structured as a slightly larger cylinder capable of accommodating this cylindrical taxi, with airtight doors on both the exterior and interior.
First, they sealed the internal door and opened the exterior one.
Then, the interior of the cylinder opened to the vacuum outside, and the taxi slipped snugly into place.
Once that was done, they closed the outer door, opened the inner door, and established a connection with the air-filled interior of the satellite.
It was at this point that they finally opened the taxi’s door and came face-to-face with those who had arrived from Earth.
By adopting this method, issues such as resupplying the artificial satellite and crew rotation could be effectively resolved.

Items to Transport from Earth

Assuming the materials for constructing the artificial satellite—along with various devices and machinery—had already been transported during the initial construction phase, what would be the heaviest item to bring from Earth when this doughnut-shaped structure was finally completed?

As would be discussed later, to conduct various scientific and military tasks and operate this satellite, its inhabitants would number close to eighty.
To sustain that population, both water and food required considerable replenishment, but what proved more critical—and weightier—was air.

The total volume of this large doughnut-shaped structure spanning forty-two ken in diameter with its spoke amounted to eighteen thousand four hundred cubic meters.
Given that one cubic meter of air weighed 1.3 kilograms, the initial air needed to fill the satellite reached approximately twenty-four thousand kilograms—twenty-four tons by weight.
Air turned out to be astonishingly heavy.

Merely transporting 24 tons of air initially did not suffice, so they had to continue replenishing it indefinitely thereafter.
The most consumed element was oxygen, so only oxygen needed replenishment going forward.
Since each person consumes approximately 1.5 kilograms of oxygen per day, eighty people required around 120 kilograms daily.
This resupply posed no significant challenge since a single rocket ship could transport approximately four months’ worth of oxygen.
When oxygen was transported as compressed gas, the cylinders’ weight became roughly ten times that of their contents, prompting them to convert it into liquid oxygen carried in large thermos containers.
Through this method, the tare weight could be kept roughly equivalent to the contents.

Now regarding the initial air transport requirements—this did not necessarily need to be ordinary air.
Since nitrogen constitutes four-fifths of atmospheric composition by weight—even when considering total air mass—the majority represented nitrogen’s contribution.
Replacing this nitrogen with helium reduced total weight by approximately one-seventh.
Through this substitution—even accounting for container mass—the initial pressurization became achievable via a single rocket vessel.
Moreover—artificial atmosphere blending helium and oxygen offered critical advantages over standard air mixtures under these operational parameters.
These benefits manifested most critically during meteoroid impact scenarios.
As previously established—standard meteoroid impacts remained fundamentally unavoidable through shielding measures—necessitating structural designs allowing complete hull penetration during collisions.
This reality mandated compartmentalized construction—though personnel within breached sections would endure sudden depressurization until rescue teams relocated them elsewhere.
Under such conditions—victims invariably developed decompression sickness—a frequently fatal condition under severe exposure.
This pathology stemmed primarily from dissolved nitrogen within bloodstreams forming microbubbles during rapid pressure reduction.
Helium’s minimal blood solubility however—rendered it ideal for preventing such gas embolism formation.
Consequently—the satellite’s atmospheric system adopted this helium-oxygen mixture as standard operational protocol.

Next after air came water.
Approximately one shō of water per person per day was required, amounting to eight to of water—weighing about 150 kilograms—for the entire population daily.
Though heavier by weight than the required oxygen quantity, since its container could be made lighter, when including tare weight it actually became lighter than oxygen.
To reduce tare weight, transporting it as ice proved most efficient—this required only a single thin plastic bag.
There was no need to worry about the ice melting.
This was because rockets needed refrigeration devices—as would be discussed next—allowing them to simply store it in those freezers.

One shō of water per day may seem somewhat insufficient.
This is water solely for drinking and cooking.
Additionally, water would also be used for research purposes and required for washing faces and shaving beards.
This is written in American books.
Even after venturing beyond Earth, it seems they are determined to shave their beards every morning.
This service water is to be covered using reclaimed water.
Even if a person drinks 1.8 liters of water per day, this water does not simply vanish.
Approximately half is excreted physiologically, while the remainder is released into the air as sweat and breath.
The air is constantly purified and supplemented with oxygen; during this purification process, water vapor from sweat and breath is recovered as water.
When they collect and purify this along with urine water, it becomes clean water again, and the amount does not decrease.
They utilize it as service water.
In truth, if they initially transport a little extra water, they should be able to cycle and use that water indefinitely.
However, even though it is chemically pure, they evidently have no desire to drink water recovered from excreta, so plans have been made to transport drinking water exclusively from Earth.
If transported as ice in a single rocket ship, four to five months’ worth of water can be carried.

As for oxygen, there was in fact a means of recovery.
The oxygen used in respiration turned into carbon dioxide and was expelled.
In Earth’s natural environment, this carbon dioxide was split back into oxygen and carbon through plant assimilation.
The most potent agent of this process was a green alga called Chlorella; when provided with sufficient sunlight, it produced fifty times its own volume in oxygen per hour.
In space, where sunlight existed in abundance beyond requirements, recovering oxygen through its tank cultivation remained entirely feasible.

Next after air and water came food.
This had to be as lightweight and nutritious as possible, and particularly something that could be absorbed as completely as possible.
In life aboard the artificial satellite, the most pressing issue was the lack of any place to discard things.
As long as humans lived, waste would inevitably be produced.
The dust and other particulate matter removed during air purification also quickly accumulated to a considerable amount.
Even more troublesome than that was the excreted matter, as there was no place to discard these things.
This was because even if they discarded it outside, since gravity did not exert its force, it would simply float in space and remain suspended right before their eyes.
This was truly troublesome.
If waste containing air were ejected into a vacuum, it would be pulverized into fine particles, but those particles would simply drift around the artificial satellite, gradually impairing visibility.
Thus, in the end, collecting all these waste materials and having the resupply rocket ship take them back to Earth became the simplest solution.
The rocket ship, on its return trip, served as a sewage boat.

Returning to Earth

When rockets returned to Earth from satellite orbit, there were tremendous difficulties.
It wasn’t as simple as just descending.
If such a thing were done, the rocket would become extremely hot due to air friction and burn up midway.
Meteors are that very phenomenon.

A rocket’s conditions during ascent and descent were entirely different.
During ascent, since the rocket passed through the dense atmospheric layer before its velocity became too great, the issue of frictional heat did not pose a significant problem.
However, during descent, as it approached Earth, its speed gradually increased, and it plunged into the atmosphere at tremendous velocity.
Thus, it ends up becoming a meteor.

Reaching extreme high temperatures was unavoidable, but the problem lay in determining what descent method would allow the heat-resistant iron airframe to endure that heat while keeping humans from being roasted alive within the cooling system’s operational limits.

First, to deviate from orbit, reducing velocity became necessary.
Therefore, initially activating the reverse rocket engine briefly lowered velocity by 1,070 miles per hour.
This brought it back to the velocity maintained when first entering the two-hour orbit.
With engines cut off, the rocket then left its orbit and transitioned into a slightly downward trajectory.
This shift placed it into an elliptical orbit.
Following ascent’s reverse trajectory brought descent to about 50 miles altitude after traveling halfway around Earth.
Velocity at this point measured approximately 18,000 miles per hour.
Significant atmospheric resistance at this altitude initiated spacecraft heating.
Here, piloting skill became critical—maintaining level flight while preserving this 50-mile altitude.

After flying about 10,000 miles while maintaining this state, the velocity finally dropped to approximately 13,000 miles per hour. In exchange, the spacecraft’s surface temperature rose to around 700 degrees Celsius due to air friction. Once the speed fell to 13,000 miles per hour, there was no longer any concern about entering an elliptical orbit and ascending back into space. As wing loading came into effect, the spacecraft entered the same glide state as a supersonic jet. While continuing its glide in this condition, calculations showed its surface temperature would rise further to nearly 740 degrees Celsius at peak. From that point onward, heat dissipation outpaced accumulation—it gradually cooled until reaching below 100 degrees Celsius upon descending to a 15-mile altitude. At this stage, its velocity matched the speed of sound at 750 miles per hour. Beyond this point, its behavior became identical to conventional aircraft—velocity kept decreasing until landing speed fell to 65 miles per hour, below typical passenger planes. Thus no landing concerns remained.

The problem was that the period during which temperatures exceeded 700 degrees Celsius persisted for a considerable length of time.
In simple terms, this was the period during which it entered a meteor-like state—during this time, the spacecraft became scorched to the point of glowing a dull red.
The sight of a glowing red-hot rocket streaking down from the heavens like an arrow would have presented a truly awe-inspiring spectacle.
However, if the spacecraft was constructed with heat-resistant iron plates, temperatures of this degree posed no problem to the spacecraft itself.
The humans inside would have been compromised, but by covering the spacecraft’s interior with thermal insulation material and operating a powerful refrigerator to cool it, the inhabited areas could be kept at temperatures near room temperature.
The windows would have needed to be double-paned, with cooled liquid flowing between the layers.
The problem lay in creating a lightweight yet powerful refrigeration system.

This problem was not one that had newly emerged specifically for space rockets; even in supersonic jet aircraft, though to a lesser degree, the same phenomenon existed, and countermeasures had already been implemented.
Therefore, while this problem of meteorization was difficult, it was believed to be solvable.

Is It Feasible?

As we have discussed above, from the perspective of modern science, the issue of artificial satellites has already moved beyond the realm of science fiction and become a matter of scientific inquiry. And it now appears that realization is feasible not only in principle but also technically, with a considerable degree of certainty.

However, when it came to actually putting it into practice, numerous problems arose.
First, recovering the detached first and second stage sections became crucial.
Even if one claimed cost posed no obstacle, discarding ninety percent of the rocket during each of hundreds of required round trips still presented significant difficulties.
Therefore, both stages were designed so that after separation, parachutes would automatically deploy and guide them into oceanic impact without sustaining major damage.
Dropping them into the sea served dual purposes - facilitating recovery while ensuring uninhabited landing zones.
The parachutes required construction from thin wire mesh for durability.

As for the first stage, even after being jettisoned, it continued flying due to inertia, so it landed at a horizontal distance of 189 miles from the launch site.
The second stage was jettisoned at a distance of 332 miles, but since it was also at a higher altitude, it traveled much farther.
The landing point was 705 miles away.
Since midair failures causing crashes during this phase also had to be considered, it was desirable for the flight path to remain entirely over the ocean throughout this period.
In that sense, as one example, Johnston Island—an isolated island in the Pacific—satisfied the necessary conditions for a base.

Once such a base was established, they first had to construct residential facilities for personnel along with fuel tanks, machine workshops, radio and radar equipment, observatories, meteorological stations, and other necessary infrastructure there.
Particularly regarding hydrazine fuel, since demand remained low at the time, mass production had not yet been implemented.
Therefore, it became advisable to establish a hydrazine manufacturing plant there as well.
Additionally, several ships equipped to retrieve the first and second stages from the sea proved necessary.
Those ships positioned themselves near the projected landing point and used radar to track descending trajectories.
Simultaneous with each landing, they rushed to the impact coordinates.

These problems can certainly be resolved if sufficient funds are invested.
However, there remain many more fundamental issues that have yet to be addressed.
Of these, priority should be given to those that have already been resolved or show promise.

First was the question of whether human bodies and aircraft could withstand such high speeds or large accelerations.
In the past, it had been said that airplanes would be destroyed if they exceeded the speed of sound, and there was even a recent example of a British jet actually breaking down.
However, this doubt had already been completely resolved.
Several years earlier in America, Bridgeman had used a Sky Rocket aircraft to reach an altitude of fifteen miles and successfully establish a high-speed record of 1,238 miles per hour—nearly twice the speed of sound.
Though details remained undisclosed, it was believed that during this flight, there had been a state of complete weightlessness for at least fifty seconds.

The question of whether humans could live without impediment in a gravity-free world also required research.
Inside artificial satellites there was artificial gravity，but space travel in general necessarily involved a state of weightlessness.
This research in the field of aviation medicine had advanced considerably well，and the conclusions were positive.

While Bridgeman’s case exemplified this，more detailed research had been conducted on monkeys and rats.
When monkeys and rats were launched into the upper atmosphere via rocket，gravity did not act upon them during their free fall period.
In such conditions，when pulse rate，blood pressure，respiratory movements，and other metrics were recorded by an automatic device installed in the rocket，they showed almost no change.
There was some disturbance，but it was only to the degree interpreted as resulting from shock.
This series of detailed experiments had been conducted over many years by a large number of scholars，led by Dr．Henry at the Aeromedical Research Institute in Dayton，Ohio．
The conclusion was reached that humans could probably function normally even in a world without gravity．

Acceleration presented an even more troublesome problem.
In the three-stage rocket being planned by Dr. Braun and his team, the greatest acceleration occurred immediately before jettisoning the first stage, reaching nine times Earth’s gravity.
Immediately before jettisoning the second stage as well, the acceleration reached approximately eight times Earth’s gravity.
When only the main body remained in flight, its velocity reached an astronomically high value of several tens of thousands of miles per hour, but acceleration decreased to two or three times gravity and dropped to zero once entering orbit.

Whether the human body could withstand accelerations of eight or nine times gravity remained a significant problem.
Research on the effects of acceleration on the human body was being conducted with large-scale facilities at institutions such as the Naval Acceleration Medical Research Institute in Pennsylvania.
Since acceleration was applied via centrifuge—using a DC motor weighing 180 tons with an instantaneous output of 16,000 horsepower to rapidly spin the gondola—the peripheral speed reached 174 mph within seven seconds of startup.
One could thereby imagine the scale of these experimental facilities.

Given that rocket construction prospects appear reasonably attainable and humans could likely board them, many might imagine lunar travel being immediately achievable.
Yet this entire discussion contains substantial elements viewed through rose-tinted lenses.
To overlook this aspect and believe in imminent realization would constitute a profound error.

If an artificial satellite were to be created

The position at which to establish an artificial satellite's orbit would differ depending on its purpose, but let us assume its orbital plane were set nearly perpendicular to Earth's orbital plane.
As mentioned earlier, this satellite would complete one orbit around Earth in two hours while Earth itself makes one full rotation in twenty-four hours.
From the satellite's vantage point, one could consequently observe Earth's entire surface within a single day.

For instance, during the time required to travel from eastern Siberia—passing over Tokyo's airspace across the equator and flying above New Zealand—to complete one full orbital circuit around Earth during this journey Earth itself would have rotated by one-twelfth of its full rotation.
On its next orbit it would pass over central Siberia, the Malay Peninsula and Australia.
When observed from any fixed location on Earth this artificial satellite would appear overhead at precisely the same time each day.
The designation 'military purposes' principally refers to this capability—equipped with a powerful telescope one could maintain continuous surveillance over all phenomena occurring across Earth's entire surface from this position.

If a 100-inch reflecting telescope were installed, the world 1,075 miles below would appear as clearly as if viewed from a height of about 4,000 shaku (approximately 1,212 meters). Photographic examination could distinguish details as small as 1 shaku 5 sun (about 45 centimeters). This means any object measuring roughly 45 centimeters would be discernible. While this represents an extreme case, ordinary houses would at minimum remain visible. With surveillance maintained at such exhaustive resolution around the clock, clandestine war preparations or covert military maneuvers would prove entirely impossible to execute undetected.

Since the artificial satellite rotated, equipping it with a large telescope posed a slight problem; however, plans were made to install the telescope in a separately constructed space observatory.
In this orbit, at a point slightly removed from the artificial satellite, they constructed a framework composed solely of Duralumin struts and installed within it a reflecting telescope, photographic equipment, and a gyro-based directional stabilizer.
This observatory also floated in space, making it conveniently manageable.
Occasionally humans clad in spacesuits—carrying small portable rockets—used them to swim freely through space and replace exposed photographic plates.
What corresponded to visual observation on Earth was transmitted into the satellite via television from this telescope.
The use of television for such purposes had already been put into practical use in some American factories.

Within the artificial satellite, all power used for the crew’s daily lives, various research activities, and satellite operations was entirely electrical.
This electricity could be sufficiently supplied using solar heat, making it unnecessary to transport energy sources from Earth.
The required power was estimated at 500 kilowatts—an amount that could be generated using a mercury vapor boiler small enough for practical use.
The artificial satellite itself had been painted white to prevent overheating from solar radiation, though black heat-absorbing mirrors were installed in specific areas where mercury was heated into vapor before being channeled into the boiler.
Temperatures remained regulated and air perpetually purified.
With such abundant electrical power available, living conditions might well have proved surprisingly comfortable.

It had been said that lunar travel would be simple if using an artificial satellite as a base—particularly for journeys not requiring lunar landing, which could be achieved with relative ease.
From the orbital rocket's nose section—the portion that had reached orbit—they would remove the rocket engine, combine it with a spherical crew gondola and fuel tank, then secure the assembly within a Duralumin frame; this configuration would suffice for lunar travel.
Though its form appeared rather peculiar, streamlining became unnecessary when operating solely in vacuum conditions.

While already possessing an orbital velocity of 15,840 mph, if they further accelerated slightly using this engine to reach 22,100 mph, it would proceed directly toward the Moon. The engine only needed to be fired for two minutes; after that, they could shut it off. Then it traced a long, narrow elliptical orbit reaching to the far side of the Moon and flew onward by inertia. In this case, since it was not in orbital motion around Earth, centrifugal force did not act as it did with an artificial satellite, causing this rocket ship to gradually lose speed. This was because Earth’s gravity, though weakened, continued to act far into the distance. It traveled to the far side of the Moon, reaching an altitude of 50 miles, and then returned. Upon returning—pulled by Earth’s gravity—its velocity increased; when it reentered its original orbit, it regained its initial speed of 22,100 mph. By reversing the rocket’s thrust for two minutes to reduce its velocity to orbital speed, they could safely “land” it into orbit. The Moon’s gravity was weak, so it only affected the correction term.

The Moon always faced Earth with only one hemisphere, making its far side perpetually invisible to terrestrial observers.
This arrangement might have struck some as peculiar, but there was no alternative to accepting cosmic reality.
The phenomenon mirrored a horse circling a track while a spectator at its center could never glimpse the animal’s opposite flank.
Yet completion of this rocket promised revelation—a chance to behold that lunar enigma from fifty miles away.
Such a voyage required five days’ travel one way.

Compared to lunar travel, the greatest scientific gain lay in how astronomy was expected to make a literal and dramatic leap forward.
As the celestial realm once observed from beneath Earth’s atmosphere suddenly expanded before humanity’s view, it became akin to how deep-sea fish’s “geography” was being replaced by human-made geography.
Dr. Fred Whipple—Harvard University’s Chair Professor of Astronomy and one of the authors of *The Frontiers of Space*—had listed seven major problems in this book and stated they could likely be easily resolved through observations from artificial satellites.

Among these was the problem of supernovae.
The galaxy constituted a small universe unto itself, containing approximately one hundred billion suns—though once every three hundred years or so, one would suddenly explode into what we call a supernova.
Of course, three centuries proved too long to wait; however, this phenomenon also occurred among stars in other galaxies and manifested with relative frequency.
Of the “light” emitted during these events, only that capable of penetrating Earth’s atmosphere became observable from our planet.
What truly mattered were X-rays, extreme ultraviolet rays, and radiation—none of which could be observed without venturing beyond the atmospheric veil.
Given these realities, astronomers’ earnest enthusiasm toward artificial satellite development stood as an entirely natural response.

Modern astronomy maintained an intimate relationship with atomic physics.
One might more accurately term it atomic physics endowed with a cosmic laboratory.
Thus were astronomy’s dramatic advances through satellite construction destined to precipitate revolutionary progress in atomic physics.
If the nineteenth century had been molecular in character, the twentieth revealed itself as atomic.
The liberation of atomic energy had already been accomplished in its first half.
That its latter half saw proposals for constructing artificial satellites—those ultimate instruments for studying nuclear reactions in space laboratories—marked no aberration in humanity’s historical march, but rather its logical continuation.

Conclusion

While artificial satellites may currently be pursued for wartime objectives or conflict prevention, when viewed through a slightly broader lens, this represents a normal chapter in human history.
I therefore believe this will be realized.
Admittedly, Japanese newspapers and magazines already abound with articles proclaiming notions like “lunar travel has entered the realm of feasibility” or “space travel is possible.”
Thus it might seem unnecessary to say anything new at this point, but I maintain a slightly different view.
As I have detailed in the main text, despite such extensive research being conducted and technological capabilities advancing steadily day by day, “lunar travel” still appears to lie quite far in the future.
Yet having already moved beyond science fiction’s domain, it now persists as a scientific challenge awaiting resolution in distant years to come.

In America too, there were those who disliked how space travel had become fodder for journalism in its vulgar sense and strongly advocated that more modest research was necessary.
The Navy Ministry had published a booklet titled *Research Review*, and in its December issue of last year (the 27th year), Mr. Rosen discussed this point at length.

The most troublesome aspect was that whenever altitude records like a hundred-some miles or two hundred-some miles were announced, people who did not grasp their true meaning recklessly stirred up excitement.
This was because they gave the general public the mistaken impression that space travel was imminent, without considering the numerous failed experiments behind them.
It was often considered that rockets aiming for altitudes over 100 miles would end up failing after just a few miles due to irregular motion.
For a rocket to perform its designated motion, all of its thousands of components must function perfectly; if even one of them malfunctions, it will fail.
In the case of rockets not carrying people, as long as there was funding, experiments could be repeated any number of times.
Eventually, new records would emerge.
However, when carrying humans, it wouldn’t go so smoothly.

The highest altitude reached by humans was not achieved by a rocket but was probably the 15.1 miles set by Bridgman in the Sky Rocket aircraft.
While multi-stage rockets had already achieved a record of 250 miles, the current target for manned rockets was an altitude of 50 miles.
This target assumed that the airframe could be discarded as long as the crew alone returned safely to Earth’s surface.
The reason they set the target at 50 miles was that this altitude represented the maximum limit at which one could safely descend using a parachute.
Even without sending humans, various measuring instruments were descended via automatic parachutes, with their records serving as research materials; however, the altitude limit for this stood at approximately 50 miles.
A few years earlier, it had been widely publicized that Earth’s curvature had been photographed for the first time, but even that photo was taken at a height barely exceeding 50 miles.
In short, at that time, for manned rockets, the target altitude was 560 miles.
Considering this point, the idea of creating an artificial satellite at an altitude of 1,075 miles remained a long way off.

It was in 1946 that a single-stage rocket achieved the altitude record of 114 miles.
In 1949, three years later, a record of 250 miles was achieved by multi-stage rockets.
If this pace continued, reaching around 300 miles seemed entirely plausible.
However, progress here had recently stalled.
Rockets could only be created through synthesizing foundational scientific knowledge from a wide array of disciplines.
And at present, researchers had exhausted this very scientific knowledge that should have served as their basis.
Thus, it was only natural that progress had stalled.
Dramatic future developments could not be expected until more modest basic research advanced further.
Therefore, stirring up excitement out of mere curiosity—as if lunar travel were imminent—might hinder humanity’s dream of space travel while ultimately proving futile.

Even when such things were stated，it did not mean space travel was without prospects．
As long as contemporary science was not mistaken，it was something that would undoubtedly be achieved—and moreover，not something hundreds of years away．
It was merely a feeling，but it would likely be achieved by the end of that century．
However，for that to happen，the basic sciences across various fields—equivalent to behind-the-scenes groundwork—needed to advance one step further．

Limiting discussion to "In America, they say rockets that can reach the moon will be ready soon" resembled farmers in remote Hokkaido marveling at how "In America, they sow seeds by airplane."
This issue might hold no direct relevance for present-day Japan, yet there existed nations earnestly confronting what could be called humanity’s greatest challenge since its dawn.
While lying beyond current national capabilities, it remained worthwhile to properly grasp its concrete details rather than dismissively attributing it all to America’s doing.

(August 1953)